Molecular template for a voltage sensor in a novel K+ channel. II. Conservation of a eukaryotic sensor fold in a prokaryotic K+ channel

Structure of potassium channels

Potassium channels ubiquitously exist in nearly all kingdoms of life and perform diverse but important functions. Since the first atomic structure of a prokaryotic potassium channel (KcsA, a channel from Streptomyces lividans) was determined, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the mechanism of potassium channels and channels conducting other ions. In this review, we discuss the structure of various kinds of potassium channels, including the potassium channel with the pore-forming domain only (KcsA), voltage-gated, inwardly rectifying, tandem pore domain, and ligand-gated ones. The general properties shared by all potassium channels are introduced first, followed by specific features in each class. Our purpose is to help readers to grasp the basic concepts, to be familiar with the property of the different domains, and to understand the structure and function of the potassium channels better.

Lipid bilayer modules as determinants of K+ channel gating

The crystal structure of the sensorless pore module of a voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) channel showed that lipids occupy a crevice between subunits. We asked if individual lipid monolayers of the bilayer embody independent modules linked to channel gating modulation. Functional studies using single channel current recordings of the sensorless pore module reconstituted in symmetric and asymmetric lipid bilayers allowed us to establish the deterministic role of lipid headgroup on gating. We discovered that individual monolayers with headgroups that coat the bilayer-aqueous interface with hydroxyls stabilize the channel open conformation. The hydroxyl need not be at a terminal position and the effect is not dependent on the presence of phosphate or net charge on the lipid headgroup. Asymmetric lipid bilayers allowed us to determine that phosphoglycerides with glycerol or inositol on the extracellular facing monolayer stabilize the open conformation of the channel. This indirect effect is attributed to a change in water structure at the membrane interface. By contrast, inclusion of the positively charged lysyl-dioleoyl-phosphatidylglycerol exclusively on the cytoplasmic facing monolayer of the bilayer increases drastically the probability of finding the channel open. Such modulation is mediated by a π-cation interaction between Phe-19 of the pore module and the lysyl moiety anchored to the phosphatidylglycerol headgroup. The new findings imply that the specific chemistry of the lipid headgroup and its selective location in either monolayer of the bilayer dictate the stability of the open conformation of a Kv pore module in the absence of voltage-sensing modules.

Stabilization of the conductive conformation of a voltage-gated K+ (Kv) channel: the lid mechanism

Voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) channels are molecular switches that sense membrane potential and in response open to allow K(+) ions to diffuse out of the cell. In these proteins, sensor and pore belong to two distinct structural modules. We previously showed that the pore module alone is a robust yet dynamic structural unit in lipid membranes and that it senses potential and gates open to conduct K(+) with unchanged fidelity. The implication is that the voltage sensitivity of K(+) channels is not solely encoded in the sensor. Given that the coupling between sensor and pore remains elusive, we asked whether it is then possible to convert a pore module characterized by brief openings into a conductor with a prolonged lifetime in the open state. The strategy involves selected probes targeted to the filter gate of the channel aiming to modulate the probability of the channel being open assayed by single channel recordings from the sensorless pore module reconstituted in lipid bilayers. Here we show that the premature closing of the pore is bypassed by association of the filter gate with two novel open conformation stabilizers: an antidepressant and a peptide toxin known to act selectively on Kv channels. Such stabilization of the conductive conformation of the channel is faithfully mimicked by the covalent attachment of fluorescein at a cysteine residue selectively introduced near the filter gate. This modulation prolongs the occupancy of permeant ions at the gate. It is this longer embrace between ion and gate that we conjecture underlies the observed stabilization of the conductive conformation. This study provides a new way of thinking about gating.

Tetrameric assembly of KvLm K+ channels with defined numbers of voltage sensors

Voltage-gated K(+) (Kv) channels are tetrameric assemblies in which each modular subunit consists of a voltage sensor and a pore domain. KvLm, the voltage-gated K(+) channel from Listeria monocytogenes, differs from other Kv channels in that its voltage sensor contains only three out of the eight charged residues previously implicated in voltage gating. Here, we ask how many sensors are required to produce a functional Kv channel by investigating heterotetramers comprising combinations of full-length KvLm (FL) and its sensorless pore module. KvLm heterotetramers were produced by cell-free expression, purified by electrophoresis, and shown to yield functional channels after reconstitution in droplet interface bilayers. We studied the properties of KvLm channels with zero, one, two, three, and four voltage sensors. Three sensors suffice to promote channel opening with FL(4)-like voltage dependence at depolarizing potentials, but all four sensors are required to keep the channel closed during membrane hyperpolarization.

Molecular template for a voltage sensor in a novel K+ channel. III. Functional reconstitution of a sensorless pore module from a prokaryotic Kv channel

KvLm is a prokaryotic voltage-gated K⁺ (Kv) channel from Listeria monocytogenes. The sequence of the voltage-sensing module (transmembrane segments S1-S4) of KvLm is atypical in that it contains only three of the eight conserved charged residues known to be deterministic for voltage sensing in eukaryotic Kv's. In contrast, the pore module (PM), including the S4-S5 linker and cytoplasmic tail (linker-S5-P-S6-C-terminus) of KvLm, is highly conserved. Here, the full-length (FL)-KvLm and the KvLm-PM only proteins were expressed, purified, and reconstituted into giant liposomes. The properties of the reconstituted FL-KvLm mirror well the characteristics of the heterologously expressed channel in Escherichia coli spheroplasts: a right-shifted voltage of activation, micromolar tetrabutylammonium-blocking affinity, and a single-channel conductance comparable to that of eukaryotic Kv's. Conversely, ionic currents through the PM recapitulate both the conductance and blocking properties of the FL-KvLm, yet the KvLm-PM exhibits only rudimentary voltage dependence. Given that the KvLm-PM displays many of the conduction properties of FL-KvLm and of other eukaryotic Kv's, including strict ion selectivity, we conclude that self-assembly of the PM subunits in lipid bilayers, in the absence of the voltage-sensing module, generates a conductive oligomer akin to that of the native KvLm, and that the structural independence of voltage sensing and PMs observed in eukaryotic Kv channels was initially implemented by nature in the design of prokaryotic Kv channels. Collectively, the results indicate that this robust functional module will prove valuable as a molecular template for coupling new sensors and to elucidate PM residue–specific contributions to Kv conduction properties.

Ion channels in microbes

Studies of ion channels have for long been dominated by the animalcentric, if not anthropocentric, view of physiology. The structures and activities of ion channels had, however, evolved long before the appearance of complex multicellular organisms on earth. The diversity of ion channels existing in cellular membranes of prokaryotes is a good example. Although at first it may appear as a paradox that most of what we know about the structure of eukaryotic ion channels is based on the structure of bacterial channels, this should not be surprising given the evolutionary relatedness of all living organisms and suitability of microbial cells for structural studies of biological macromolecules in a laboratory environment. Genome sequences of the human as well as various microbial, plant, and animal organisms unambiguously established the evolutionary links, whereas crystallographic studies of the structures of major types of ion channels published over the last decade clearly demonstrated the advantage of using microbes as experimental organisms. The purpose of this review is not only to provide an account of acquired knowledge on microbial ion channels but also to show that the study of microbes and their ion channels may also hold a key to solving unresolved molecular mysteries in the future.

The structure of the prokaryotic cyclic nucleotide-modulated potassium channel MloK1 at 16 A resolution

The gating ring of cyclic nucleotide-modulated channels is proposed to be either a two-fold symmetric dimer of dimers or a four-fold symmetric tetramer based on high-resolution structure data of soluble cyclic nucleotide-binding domains and functional data on intact channels. We addressed this controversy by obtaining structural data on an intact, full-length, cyclic nucleotide-modulated potassium channel, MloK1, from Mesorhizobium loti, which also features a putative voltage-sensor. We present here the 3D single-particle structure by transmission electron microscopy and the projection map of membrane-reconstituted 2D crystals of MloK1 in the presence of cAMP. Our data show a four-fold symmetric arrangement of the CNBDs, separated by discrete gaps. A homology model for full-length MloK1 suggests a vertical orientation for the CNBDs. The 2D crystal packing in the membrane-embedded state is compatible with the S1-S4 domains in the vertical "up" state.

Molecular template for a voltage sensor in a novel K+ channel. I. Identification and functional characterization of KvLm, a voltage-gated K+ channel from Listeria monocytogenes

The fundamental principles underlying voltage sensing, a hallmark feature of electrically excitable cells, are still enigmatic and the subject of intense scrutiny and controversy. Here we show that a novel prokaryotic voltage-gated K⁺ (Kv) channel from Listeria monocytogenes (KvLm) embodies a rudimentary, yet robust, sensor sufficient to endow it with voltage-dependent features comparable to those of eukaryotic Kv channels. The most conspicuous feature of the KvLm sequence is the nature of the sensor components: the motif is recognizable; it appears, however, to contain only three out of eight charged residues known to be conserved in eukaryotic Kv channels and accepted to be deterministic for folding and sensing. Despite the atypical sensor sequence, flux assays of KvLm reconstituted in liposomes disclosed a channel pore that is highly selective for K⁺ and is blocked by conventional Kv channel blockers. Single-channel currents recorded in symmetric K⁺ solutions from patches of enlarged Escherichia coli (spheroplasts) expressing KvLm showed that channel open probability sharply increases with depolarization, a hallmark feature of Kv channels. The identification of a voltage sensor module in KvLm with a voltage dependence comparable to that of other eukaryotic Kv channels yet encoded by a sequence that departs significantly from the consensus sequence of a eukaryotic voltage sensor establishes a molecular blueprint of a minimal sequence for a voltage sensor.