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Mishra M. Daphnia magna as a Model Organism to Predict the Teratogenic Effect of Different Compounds. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2753:261-281. [PMID: 38285344 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3625-1_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
For aquatic ecosystem Daphnia magna is evolving as a model organism to check the teratogenicity of numerous compounds. D. magna can be easily cultured in the laboratory, and the teratogen effect of several compounds can be easily studied. The developmental stages are well studied in D. magna. All the developmental stages are transparent so the defect can be easily accessed. So, the postembryonic developmental changes can be easily studied after the exposure with teratogen. More importantly, D. magna also have a swimming behavioral phenotype. The behavioral defect can be easily accessed after teratogen exposure. The current chapter summarizes numerous protocols associated with embryo and adult staining and adult behavioral assays that can be used to access the teratogenicity of any unknown compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monalisa Mishra
- Neural Developmental Biology Lab, Department of Life Science, NIT Rourkela, Rourkela, Odisha, India.
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2
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Ware-Gilmore F, Novelo M, Sgrò CM, Hall MD, McGraw EA. Assessing the role of family level variation and heat shock gene expression in the thermal stress response of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220011. [PMID: 36744557 PMCID: PMC9900713 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The geographical range of the mosquito vector for many human disease-causing viruses, Aedes aegypti, is expanding, in part owing to changing climate. The capacity of this species to adapt to thermal stress will affect its future distributions. It is unclear how much heritable genetic variation may affect the upper thermal limits of mosquito populations over the long term. Nor are the genetic pathways that confer thermal tolerance fully understood. In the short term, cells induce a plastic, protective response known as 'heat shock'. Using a physiological 'knockdown' assay, we investigated mosquito thermal tolerance to characterize the genetic architecture of the trait. While families representing the extreme ends of the distribution for knockdown time differed from one another, the trait exhibited low but non-zero broad-sense heritability. We then explored whether families representing thermal performance extremes differed in their heat shock response by measuring gene expression of heat shock protein-encoding genes Hsp26, Hsp83 and Hsp70. Contrary to prediction, the families with higher thermal tolerance demonstrated less Hsp expression. This pattern may indicate that other mechanisms of heat tolerance, rather than heat shock, may underpin the stress response, and the costly production of HSPs may instead signal poor adaptation. This article is part of the theme issue 'Infectious disease ecology and evolution in a changing world'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fhallon Ware-Gilmore
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA,The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Mario Novelo
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA,The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Carla M. Sgrò
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew D. Hall
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Elizabeth A. McGraw
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA,The Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA,Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
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3
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Scheffer H, Coate JE, Ho EKH, Schaack S. Thermal stress and mutation accumulation increase heat shock protein expression in Daphnia. Evol Ecol 2022; 36:829-844. [PMID: 36193163 PMCID: PMC9522699 DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10209-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the short- and long-term consequences of climate change is a major challenge in biology. For aquatic organisms, temperature changes and drought can lead to thermal stress and habitat loss, both of which can ultimately lead to higher mutation rates. Here, we examine the effect of high temperature and mutation accumulation on gene expression at two loci from the heat shock protein (HSP) gene family, HSP60 and HSP90. HSPs have been posited to serve as 'mutational capacitors' given their role as molecular chaperones involved in protein folding and degradation, thus buffering against a wide range of cellular stress and destabilization. We assayed changes in HSP expression across 5 genotypes of Daphnia magna, a sentinel species in ecology and environmental biology, with and without acute exposure to thermal stress and accumulated mutations. Across genotypes, HSP expression increased ~ 6× in response to heat and ~ 4× with mutation accumulation, individually. Both factors simultaneously (lineages with high mutation loads exposed to high heat) increased gene expression ~ 23×-much more than that predicted by an additive model. Our results corroborate suggestions that HSPs can buffer against not only the effects of heat, but also mutations-a combination of factors both likely to increase in a warming world. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10682-022-10209-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Scheffer
- Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
| | - Jeremy E. Coate
- Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
| | - Eddie K. H. Ho
- Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
| | - Sarah Schaack
- Department of Biology, Reed College, 3203 SE Woodstock Blvd, Portland, OR 97202 USA
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4
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Gu L, Qin S, Sun Y, Huang J, Akbar S, Zhang L, Yang Z. Coping with antagonistic predation risks: Predator-dependent unique responses are dominant in Ceriodaphnia cornuta. Mol Ecol 2022; 31:3951-3962. [PMID: 35621395 DOI: 10.1111/mec.16550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Inducible defences of prey are evolved under diverse and variable predation risks. However, during the co-evolution of prey and multiple predators, the responses of prey to antagonistic predation risks, which may put the prey into a dilemma of responding to predators, remain unclear. Based on antagonistic predation pressure from an invertebrate (Chaoborus larvae) and a vertebrate (Rhodeus ocellatus) predator, we studied the responses of multiple traits and transcriptomes of the freshwater crustacean Ceriodaphnia cornuta under multiple predation risks. Chaoborus predation risk altered the expression of genes encoding cuticle proteins and modulated the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, cutin, suberine, and wax, leading to the development of horns and increase in size at the late developmental stage. Meanwhile, fish predation risk primarily triggered genes encoding ribosomes and those involved in unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and cysteine and methionine metabolism, resulting in smaller individual size and earlier reproduction. Inducible responses of both transcriptome and individual traits revealed that predator-dependent unique responses were dominant and the dilemma of antagonistic responses was relatively limited. However, the unique individual traits in response to invertebrate predation could be significantly impaired by vertebrate predation risk, even though the unique responses to different predators were extremely weakly correlated and could be elicited simultaneously. These results indicate that diverse predator-dependent unique responses are favoured by Ceriodaphnia during its co-evolution with multiple predators. Nonetheless, Ceriodaphnia is not a generalist that can fully adopt all predator-dependent unique responses simultaneously under multiple predation risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Gu
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shanshan Qin
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yunfei Sun
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Siddiq Akbar
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhou Yang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, School of Biological Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
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5
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Rivi V, Batabyal A, Benatti C, Blom JM, Lukowiak K. Nature versus nurture in heat stress induced learning between inbred and outbred populations of Lymnaea stagnalis. J Therm Biol 2022; 103:103170. [PMID: 35027189 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.103170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Changing environmental conditions often lead to microevolution of traits that are adaptive under the current selection pressure. Currently, one of the major selection pressures is the rise in temperatures globally that has a severe impact on the behavioral ecology of animals. However, the role of thermal stress on neuronal plasticity and memory formation is not well understood. Thermal tolerance and sensitivity to heat stress show variation across populations of the same species experiencing different thermal regimes. We used two populations of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis: one lab-bred W-snails and the other wild Delta snails to test heat shock induced learning and memory formation for the Garcia effect learning paradigm. In Garcia effect, a single pairing of a heat stressor (30 °C for 1h) with a novel taste results in a taste-specific negative hedonic shift lasting 24h as long-term memory (LTM) in lab bred W-snails. In this study we used a repeated heat stress procedure to test for increased or decreased sensitivity to the heat before testing for the Garcia effect. We found that lab-bred W-snails show increased sensitivity to heat stress after repeated heat exposure for 7days, leading to enhanced LTM for Garcia effect with only 15min of heat exposure instead of standard 1h. Surprisingly, the freshly collected wild snails do not show Garcia effect. Additionally, F1 generation of wild snails raised and maintained under laboratory conditions still retain their heat stress tolerance similar to their parents and do not show a Garcia effect under standard learning paradigm or even after repeated heat stressor. Thus, we found a differential effect of heat stress on memory formation in wild and lab bred snails. Most interestingly we also show that local environmental (temperature) conditions for one generation is not enough to alter thermal sensitivity in a wild population of L. stagnalis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Rivi
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Anuradha Batabyal
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Cristina Benatti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Johanna Mc Blom
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy; Centre of Neuroscience and Neurotechnology, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Ken Lukowiak
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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6
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Bruijning M, Fossen EIF, Jongejans E, Vanvelk H, Raeymaekers JAM, Govaert L, Brans KI, Einum S, De Meester L. Host–parasite dynamics shaped by temperature and genotype: Quantifying the role of underlying vital rates. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein Bruijning
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Princeton University Princeton NJ USA
- Department of Animal Ecology and Physiology Radboud University Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Erlend I. F. Fossen
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology NTNUNorwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
- Animal Ecology Department of Ecology and Genetics Uppsala University Uppsala Sweden
| | - Eelke Jongejans
- Department of Animal Ecology and Physiology Radboud University Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Animal Ecology NIOO‐KNAW Wageningen The Netherlands
| | - Héléne Vanvelk
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | | | - Lynn Govaert
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
- Department of Evolutionary Biology and Environmental Studies University of Zurich Zürich Switzerland
- Department of Aquatic Ecology Eawag Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology Dübendorf Switzerland
| | - Kristien I. Brans
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
| | - Sigurd Einum
- Centre for Biodiversity Dynamics Department of Biology NTNUNorwegian University of Science and Technology Trondheim Norway
| | - Luc De Meester
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation KU Leuven Leuven Belgium
- Leibniz Institüt für Gewasserökologie und Binnenfischerei (IGB) Berlin Germany
- Institute of Biology Freie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
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7
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Continuity of chronic predation risk determines changes in prey physiology. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6972. [PMID: 32332831 PMCID: PMC7181678 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64000-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Prey reconfigure their physiology to avoid costs of prolonged predator pressure. However, these changes might not occur under periodic predation risk, with repeating acute phases. To test the effect of predation risk continuity on changes in prey physiology, we exposed amphipods: Dikerogammarus villosus and Gammarus jazdzewskii to periodic and constant predation cue. After one week, we measured: cellular defence systems: total antioxidant status (TAS), heat shock proteins (Hsp70); intracellular damage marker: lipid peroxidation (TBARS); condition index: glycogen concentration. Predator presence reduced TAS level in G. jazdzewskii independent of its continuity and in D. villosus after periodic exposure. Amphipods showed downregulation of Hsp70 when exposed to periodic (D. villosus) or constant (G. jazdzewskii) predation risk. Exposure to predators reduced TBARS level in D. villosus (irrespective of the continuity) and G. jazdzewskii (periodic exposure). Glycogen concentration in both species was not affected by predator presence. Thus, the continuity of the predator cue shaped prey physiology reconfiguration, optimizing costs of physiological adjustments under challenging conditions. Nevertheless, the lack of negative consequences of the prolonged exposure to the predator cue, whether constant or periodic, shows that amphipods can thrive under chronic predation risk, which is a constant part of the wild environment.
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8
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Lu Y, Johnston PR, Dennis SR, Monaghan MT, John U, Spaak P, Wolinska J. Daphnia galeata responds to the exposure to an ichthyosporean gut parasite by down-regulation of immunity and lipid metabolism. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:932. [PMID: 30547741 PMCID: PMC6295042 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-5312-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Regulatory circuits of infection in the emerging experimental model system, water flea Daphnia and their microparasites, remain largely unknown. Here we provide the first molecular insights into the response of Daphnia galeata to its highly virulent and common parasite Caullerya mesnili, an ichthyosporean that infects the gut epithelium. We generated a transcriptomic dataset using RNAseq from parasite-exposed (vs. control) Daphnia, at two time points (4 and 48 h) after parasite exposure. RESULTS We found a down-regulation of metabolism and immunity-related genes, at 48 h (but not 4 h) after parasite exposure. These genes are involved in lipid metabolism and fatty acid biosynthesis, as well as microbe recognition (e.g. c-type lectins) and pathogen attack (e.g. gut chitin). CONCLUSIONS General metabolic suppression implies host energy shift from reproduction to survival, which is in agreement with the known drastic reduction in Daphnia fecundity after Caullerya infection. The down-regulation of gut chitin indicates a possible interaction between the peritrophic matrix and the evading host immune system. Our study provides the first description of host transcriptional responses in this very promising host-parasite experimental system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yameng Lu
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin, Germany. .,Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research (BeGenDiv), Berlin, Germany.
| | - Paul R Johnston
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research (BeGenDiv), Berlin, Germany.,Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stuart R Dennis
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Michael T Monaghan
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research (BeGenDiv), Berlin, Germany
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institut Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar und Meeresforschung (AWI), Bremerhaven, Germany.,Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity (HIFMB), Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Piet Spaak
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Justyna Wolinska
- Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Berlin, Germany.,Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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9
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Yousey AM, Chowdhury PR, Biddinger N, Shaw JH, Jeyasingh PD, Weider LJ. Resurrected 'ancient' Daphnia genotypes show reduced thermal stress tolerance compared to modern descendants. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:172193. [PMID: 29657812 PMCID: PMC5882736 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.172193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Understanding how populations adapt to rising temperatures has been a challenge in ecology. Research often evaluates multiple populations to test whether local adaptation to temperature regimes is occurring. Space-for-time substitutions are common, as temporal constraints limit our ability to observe evolutionary responses. We employed a resurrection ecology approach to understand how thermal tolerance has changed in a Daphnia pulicaria population over time. Temperatures experienced by the oldest genotypes were considerably lower than the youngest. We hypothesized clones were adapted to the thermal regimes of their respective time periods. We performed two thermal shock experiments that varied in length of heat exposure. Overall trends revealed that younger genotypes exhibited higher thermal tolerance than older genotypes; heat shock protein (hsp70) expression increased with temperature and varied among genotypes, but not across time periods. Our results indicate temperature may have been a selective factor on this population, although the observed responses may be a function of multifarious selection. Prior work found striking changes in population genetic structure, and in other traits that were strongly correlated with anthropogenic changes. Resurrection ecology approaches should help our understanding of interactive effects of anthropogenic alterations to temperature and other stressors on the evolutionary fate of natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aime'e M. Yousey
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, 730 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019, USA
| | - Priyanka Roy Chowdhury
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Sciences West, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Nicole Biddinger
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Sciences West, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Jennifer H. Shaw
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Sciences West, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Punidan D. Jeyasingh
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Sciences West, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - Lawrence J. Weider
- Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma, 730 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019, USA
- Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Oklahoma, 730 Van Vleet Oval, Norman, OK 73019, USA
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10
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Gunderson AR, King EE, Boyer K, Tsukimura B, Stillman JH. Species as Stressors: Heterospecific Interactions and the Cellular Stress Response under Global Change. Integr Comp Biol 2017; 57:90-102. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icx019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
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11
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Jordão R, Campos B, Lemos MFL, Soares AMVM, Tauler R, Barata C. Induction of multixenobiotic defense mechanisms in resistant Daphnia magna clones as a general cellular response to stress. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 175:132-143. [PMID: 27039215 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Multixenobiotic resistance mechanisms (MXR) were recently identified in Daphnia magna. Previous results characterized gene transcripts of genes encoding and efflux activities of four putative ABCB1 and ABCC transporters that were chemically induced but showed low specificity against model transporter substrates and inhibitors, thus preventing us from distinguishing between activities of different efflux transporter types. In this study we report on the specificity of induction of ABC transporters and of the stress protein hsp70 in clones selected to be genetically resistant to ABCB1 chemical substrates. Clones resistant to mitoxantrone, ivermectin and pentachlorophenol showed distinctive transcriptional responses of transporter protein coding genes and of putative transporter dye activities. Expression of hsp70 proteins also varied across resistant clones. Clones resistant to mitoxantrone and pentachlorophenol showed high constitutive levels of hsp70. Transcriptional levels of the abcb1 gene transporter and of putative dye transporter activity were also induced to a greater extent in the pentachlorophenol resistant clone. Observed higher dye transporter activities in individuals from clones resistant to mitoxantrone and ivermectin were unrelated with transcriptional levels of the studied four abcc and abcb1 transporter genes. These findings suggest that Abcb1 induction in D. magna may be a part of a general cellular stress response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Jordão
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (IDAEA, CSIC), Barcelona, Spain; Centre for Environmental and Marine studies (CESAM), Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal; MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ESTM, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Peniche, Portugal
| | - Bruno Campos
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (IDAEA, CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marco F L Lemos
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, ESTM, Polytechnic Institute of Leiria, Peniche, Portugal
| | - Amadeu M V M Soares
- Centre for Environmental and Marine studies (CESAM), Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Romà Tauler
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (IDAEA, CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Barata
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA), Spanish Research Council (IDAEA, CSIC), Barcelona, Spain.
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12
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Oexle S, Jansen M, Pauwels K, Sommaruga R, De Meester L, Stoks R. Rapid evolution of antioxidant defence in a natural population of Daphnia magna. J Evol Biol 2016; 29:1328-37. [PMID: 27018861 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2015] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Natural populations can cope with rapid changes in stressors by relying on sets of physiological defence mechanisms. Little is known onto what extent these physiological responses reflect plasticity and/or genetic adaptation, evolve in the same direction and result in an increased defence ability. Using resurrection ecology, we studied how a natural Daphnia magna population adjusted its antioxidant defence to ultraviolet radiation (UVR) during a period with increasing incident UVR reaching the water surface. We demonstrate a rapid evolution of the induction patterns of key antioxidant enzymes under UVR exposure in the laboratory. Notably, evolutionary changes strongly differed among enzymes and mainly involved the evolution of UV-induced plasticity. Whereas D. magna evolved a strong plastic up-regulation of glutathione peroxidase under UVR, it evolved a lower plastic up-regulation of glutathione S-transferase and superoxide dismutase and a plastic down-regulation of catalase. The differentially evolved antioxidant strategies were collectively equally effective in dealing with oxidative stress because they resulted in the same high levels of oxidative damage (to lipids, proteins and DNA) and lowered fitness (intrinsic growth rate) under UVR exposure. The lack of better protection against UVR may suggest that the UVR exposure did not increase between both periods. Predator-induced evolution to migrate to lower depths that occurred during the same period may have contributed to the evolved defence strategy. Our results highlight the need for a multiple trait approach when focusing on the evolution of defence mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Oexle
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - M Jansen
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - K Pauwels
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - R Sommaruga
- Laboratory of Aquatic Photobiology and Plankton Ecology, Institute of Ecology, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - L De Meester
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - R Stoks
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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13
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Haap T, Schwarz S, Köhler HR. Metallothionein and Hsp70 trade-off against one another in Daphnia magna cross-tolerance to cadmium and heat stress. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 170:112-119. [PMID: 26655655 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The association between the insensitivity of adapted ecotypes of invertebrates to environmental stress, such as heavy metal pollution, and overall low Hsp levels characterizing these organisms has been attracting attention in various studies. The present study seeks to induce and examine this phenomenon in Daphnia magna by multigenerational acclimation to cadmium in a controlled laboratory setting. In this experiment, interclonal variation was examined: two clones of D. magna that have previously been characterized to diverge regarding their cadmium resistance and levels of the stress protein Hsp70, were continuously exposed to a sublethal concentration of Cd over four generations to study the effects of acclimation on Hsp70, metallothionein (MT), reproduction and cross-tolerance to heat stress. The two clones differed in all the measured parameters in a characteristic way, clone T displaying Cd and heat resistance, lower Hsp70 levels and offspring numbers on the one hand and higher MT expression on the other hand, clone S the opposite for all these parameters. We observed only slight acclimation-induced changes in constitutive Hsp70 levels and reproductive output. The differences in MT expression between clones as well as between acclimated organisms and controls give evidence for MT accounting for the higher Cd tolerance of clone T. Overall high Hsp70 levels of clone S did not confer cross tolerance to heat stress, contrary to common expectations. Our results suggest a trade-off between the efforts to limit the proteotoxic symptoms of Cd toxicity by Hsp70 induction and those to sequester and detoxify Cd by means of MT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Haap
- Animal Physiological Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 5, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Simon Schwarz
- Animal Physiological Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 5, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Heinz-R Köhler
- Animal Physiological Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 5, D-72076 Tübingen, Germany
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14
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Adam B, Zofia S, Tadeusz S. Protective effects of ectoine on heat-stressed Daphnia magna. J Comp Physiol B 2014; 184:961-76. [PMID: 25223383 PMCID: PMC4234998 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-014-0860-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Ectoine (ECT) is an amino acid produced and accumulated by halophilic bacteria in stressful conditions in order to prevent the loss of water from the cell. There is a lack of knowledge on the effects of ECT in heat-stressed aquatic animals. The purpose of our study was to determine the influence of ECT on Daphnia magna subjected to heat stress with two temperature gradients: 1 and 0.1 °C/min in the range of 23–42 °C. Time to immobilisation, survival during recovery, swimming performance, heart rate, thoracic limb movement and the levels of heat shock protein 70 kDa 1A (HSP70 1A), catalase (CAT) and nitric oxide species (NOx) were determined in ECT-exposed and unexposed daphnids; we showed protective effects of ECT on Daphnia magna subjected to heat stress. Time to immobilisation of daphnids exposed to ECT was longer when compared to the unexposed animals. Also, survival rate during the recovery of daphnids previously treated with ECT was higher. ECT significantly attenuated a rapid increase of mean swimming velocity which was elevated in the unexposed daphnids. Moreover, we observed elevation of thoracic limb movement and modulation of heart rate in ECT-exposed animals. HSP70 1A and CAT levels were reduced in the presence of ECT. On the other hand, NOx level was slightly elevated in both ECT-treated and unexposed daphnids, however slightly higher NOx level was found in ECT-treated animals. We conclude that the exposure to ectoine has thermoprotective effects on Daphnia magna, however their mechanisms are not associated with the induction of HSP70 1A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bownik Adam
- Department of Physiology and Ecotoxicology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Environmental Sciences, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Kontstantynów 1 "I", 20-708, Lublin, Poland,
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15
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Jansen M, Vergauwen L, Vandenbrouck T, Knapen D, Dom N, Spanier KI, Cielen A, De Meester L. Gene expression profiling of three different stressors in the water flea Daphnia magna. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2013; 22:900-914. [PMID: 23564370 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-013-1072-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Microarrays are an ideal tool to screen for differences in gene expression of thousands of genes simultaneously. However, often commercial arrays are not available. In this study, we performed microarray analyses to evaluate patterns of gene transcription following exposure to two natural and one anthropogenic stressor. cDNA microarrays compiled of three life stage specific and three stressor-specific EST libraries, yielding 1734 different EST sequences, were used. We exposed juveniles of the water flea Daphnia magna for 48, 96 and 144 h to three stressors known to exert strong selection in natural populations of this species i.e. a sublethal concentration of the pesticide carbaryl, infective spores of the endoparasite Pasteuria ramosa, and fish predation risk mimicked by exposure to fish kairomones. A total of 148 gene fragments were differentially expressed compared to the control. Based on a PCA, the exposure treatments were separated into two main groups based on the extent of the transcriptional response: a low and a high (144 h of fish or carbaryl exposure and 96 h of parasite exposure) stress group. Firstly, we observed a general stress-related transcriptional expression profile independent of the treatment characterized by repression of transcripts involved in transcription, translation, signal transduction and energy metabolism. Secondly, we observed treatment-specific responses including signs of migration to deeper water layers in response to fish predation, structural challenge of the cuticle in response to carbaryl exposure, and disturbance of the ATP production in parasite exposure. A third important conclusion is that transcription expression patterns exhibit stress-specific changes over time. Parasite exposure shows the most differentially expressed gene fragments after 96 h. The peak of differentially expressed transcripts came only after 144 h of fish exposure, while carbaryl exposure induced a more stable number of differently expressed gene fragments over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mieke Jansen
- Laboratory of Aquatic Ecology, Evolution and Conservation, Catholic University of Leuven, Charles Deberiotstraat 32, 3000 Leuven, Belgium.
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16
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Breuner CW, Delehanty B, Boonstra R. Evaluating stress in natural populations of vertebrates: total CORT is not good enough. Funct Ecol 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Creagh W. Breuner
- Wildlife Biology and Organismal Biology and Ecology; University of Montana; Missoula; Montana; 59812; USA
| | - Brendan Delehanty
- Department of Biological Sciences; Centre for the Neurobiology of Stress; University of Toronto Scarborough; Toronto; Ontario; M1C 1A4; Canada
| | - Rudy Boonstra
- Department of Biological Sciences; Centre for the Neurobiology of Stress; University of Toronto Scarborough; Toronto; Ontario; M1C 1A4; Canada
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17
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Hansen MM, Olivieri I, Waller DM, Nielsen EE. Monitoring adaptive genetic responses to environmental change. Mol Ecol 2012; 21:1311-29. [PMID: 22269082 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-294x.2011.05463.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Widespread environmental changes including climate change, selective harvesting and landscape alterations now greatly affect selection regimes for most organisms. How animals and plants can adapt to these altered environments via contemporary evolution is thus of strong interest. We discuss how to use genetic monitoring to study adaptive responses via repeated analysis of the same populations over time, distinguishing between phenotypic and molecular genetics approaches. After describing monitoring designs, we develop explicit criteria for demonstrating adaptive responses, which include testing for selection and establishing clear links between genetic and environmental change. We then review a few exemplary studies that explore adaptive responses to climate change in Drosophila, selective responses to hunting and fishing, and contemporary evolution in Daphnia using resurrected resting eggs. We further review a broader set of 44 studies to assess how well they meet the proposed criteria, and conclude that only 23% fulfill all criteria. Approximately half (43%) of these studies failed to rule out the alternative hypothesis of replacement by a different, better-adapted population. Likewise, 34% of the studies based on phenotypic variation did not test for selection as opposed to drift. These shortcomings can be addressed via improved experimental designs and statistical testing. We foresee monitoring of adaptive responses as a future valuable tool in conservation biology, for identifying populations unable to evolve at sufficiently high rates and for identifying possible donor populations for genetic rescue. Technological advances will further augment the realization of this potential, especially next-generation sequencing technologies that allow for monitoring at the level of whole genomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael M Hansen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 114, Aarhus C, Denmark.
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18
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Sørensen JG, Loeschcke V, Merilä J, Laurila A. Effects of predator exposure on Hsp70 expression and survival in tadpoles of the Common Frog (Rana temporaria). CAN J ZOOL 2011. [DOI: 10.1139/z11-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Predator-induced changes in prey behavior and morphology are widespread, but little is known about physiological and cellular-level responses in prey in response to predation risk. We investigated whether predator (larvae of the dragonfly Aeshna Fabricius, 1775) presence elevated the expression level of heat-shock protein 70 (Hsp70)—a commonly found response to stress—in tadpoles of the Common Frog ( Rana temporaria L., 1758). In another experiment, we tested the survival of tadpoles in the presence of a free-ranging predator. Prior to this encounter, the tadpoles were exposed to either an Hsp-inducing environmental stress in the form of heat (31 °C) or to predator cues from a caged predator. We found no evidence for increased Hsp70 expression in tadpoles either in the presence of fed or starved predators. We did not find any effects of prior exposure to neither heat nor predator presence on survival at the end of experiment. Our results do not point to either Hsp70-mediated effect of predator-induced responses or to beneficial effects of the stress response on survival under predation risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesper Givskov Sørensen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Vejlsøvej 25, P.O. Box 314, DK-8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
| | - Volker Loeschcke
- Aarhus Centre of Environmental Stress Research (ACES), Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Ny Munkegade 114-116, Building 1540, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Juha Merilä
- Ecological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, P.O. Box 65, University of Helsinki, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anssi Laurila
- Population and Conservation Biology and Department of Ecology and Evolution, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, SE-75236 Uppsala, Sweden
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Decaestecker E, Labbé P, Ellegaard K, Allen JE, Little TJ. Candidate innate immune system gene expression in the ecological model Daphnia. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 35:1068-1077. [PMID: 21550363 PMCID: PMC3170911 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2011.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Revised: 04/02/2011] [Accepted: 04/02/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The last ten years have witnessed increasing interest in host-pathogen interactions involving invertebrate hosts. The invertebrate innate immune system is now relatively well characterised, but in a limited range of genetic model organisms and under a limited number of conditions. Immune systems have been little studied under real-world scenarios of environmental variation and parasitism. Thus, we have investigated expression of candidate innate immune system genes in the water flea Daphnia, a model organism for ecological genetics, and whose capacity for clonal reproduction facilitates an exceptionally rigorous control of exposure dose or the study of responses at many time points. A unique characteristic of the particular Daphnia clones and pathogen strain combinations used presently is that they have been shown to be involved in specific host-pathogen coevolutionary interactions in the wild. We choose five genes, which are strong candidates to be involved in Daphnia-pathogen interactions, given that they have been shown to code for immune effectors in related organisms. Differential expression of these genes was quantified by qRT-PCR following exposure to the bacterial pathogen Pasteuria ramosa. Constitutive expression levels differed between host genotypes, and some genes appeared to show correlated expression. However, none of the genes appeared to show a major modification of expression level in response to Pasteuria exposure. By applying knowledge from related genetic model organisms (e.g. Drosophila) to models for the study of evolutionary ecology and coevolution (i.e. Daphnia), the candidate gene approach is temptingly efficient. However, our results show that detection of only weak patterns is likely if one chooses target genes for study based on previously identified genome sequences by comparison to homologues from other related organisms. Future work on the Daphnia-Pasteuria system will need to balance a candidate gene approach with more comprehensive approaches to de novo identify immune system genes specific to the Daphnia-Pasteuria interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Decaestecker
- Aquatic Biology, Science & Technology, IRF-Life Sciences, K.U.Leuven-Campus Kortrijk, Belgium.
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Mikulski A, Bernatowicz P, Grzesiuk M, Kloc M, Pijanowska J. Differential levels of stress proteins (HSPs) in male and female Daphnia magna in response to thermal stress: a consequence of sex-related behavioral differences? J Chem Ecol 2011; 37:670-6. [PMID: 21614533 PMCID: PMC3125514 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-011-9969-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Revised: 05/05/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In two independent experiments, we compared: (1) water depth selection (and accompanying temperature selection) by male and female Daphnia magna under different kinds of environmental stress, including the presence of filamentous cyanobacteria, the risk of predation from fish, and the presence of toxic compounds; and (2) sex-dependent production of heat shock proteins (HSP60, 70, and 90) in response to a sudden change in temperature. Male D. magna selected deep water strata, which offer a relatively stable environment, and thereby avoided the threat of predation and the presence of toxic compounds in surface waters. Correlated with this behavior, males reduce their molecular defenses against stress, such as the production of heat shock proteins (HSPs), and do not maintain the physiological machinery that triggers an increase in HSP levels in response to stress. In contrast, female D. magna actively select habitats that offer optimal conditions for growth and production of offspring. Consequently, females are exposed to variable environmental conditions that may be associated with increased stress. To permit survival in these different habitats, D. magna females require molecular mechanisms to protect their cells from rapid changes in stress levels. Thus, they maintain high constitutive levels of the heat shock proteins from HSP 60, 70, and 90 families, and they have the potential to further enhance the production of the majority of these proteins under stress conditions. The results of this study indicate that the separate habitats selected by male and female D. magna result in different patterns of HSP production, leading us to hypothesize that that male and female Daphnia magna adopt different strategies to maximize the fitness of the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrzej Mikulski
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
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21
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Strobbe F, McPeek MA, De Block M, Stoks R. Survival selection imposed by predation on a physiological trait underlying escape speed. Funct Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01752.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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Pauwels K, Stoks R, De Meester L. Enhanced anti-predator defence in the presence of food stress in the water flea Daphnia magna. Funct Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2009.01641.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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23
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Haap T, Köhler HR. Cadmium tolerance in seven Daphnia magna clones is associated with reduced hsp70 baseline levels and induction. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2009; 94:131-137. [PMID: 19604586 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2009.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Revised: 05/22/2009] [Accepted: 06/09/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The stress protein hsp70 is part of the intracellular alarm and repair system which enables organisms to counteract negative effects of toxicants on protein integrity. Under long-term selection pressure exerted by environmental pollution, in particular heavy metals, this system may be expected to play a major role in the course of local, microevolutionary events leading to the acquisition of toxicant resistance. Seven clones of Daphnia magna from different geographical regions were characterized regarding their sensitivity to Cd, their hsp70 expression, and Cd accumulation. In an acute immobilisation assay, the tested clones showed remarkable differences in their sensitivity to Cd. The highest EC(50) values by far were obtained for the clone displaying lowest hsp70 expression. In general, hsp70 levels reflected the order of sensitivity to Cd among the seven clones reciprocally. Clonal variations in sensitivity and hsp70 expression could not be related to differential accumulation of Cd, though. In summary, the association of stress insensitivity with low hsp70 induction which has been exemplarily reported for populations of different invertebrates under strong selection pressure could be affirmed for a largely parthenogenetic species for the first time. Furthermore, our observation has serious consequences for the interpretation of toxicological assays using a single D. magna clone solely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timo Haap
- Animal Physiological Ecology, University of Tübingen, Konrad-Adenauer-Str. 20, D-72072 Tübingen, Germany.
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Van Doorslaer W, Stoks R, Duvivier C, Bednarska A, De Meester L. POPULATION DYNAMICS DETERMINE GENETIC ADAPTATION TO TEMPERATURE INDAPHNIA. Evolution 2009; 63:1867-78. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00679.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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25
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Mikulski A, Grzesiuk M, Kloc M, Pijanowska J. Heat shock proteins in Daphnia detected using commercial antibodies: description and responsiveness to thermal stress. CHEMOECOLOGY 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s00049-009-0010-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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