Implementation science: how to jump‐start infection prevention

A qualitative study of infection prevention and control practices in the maternal units of two Ghanaian hospitals

INTRODUCTION

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) remain a common challenge in healthcare delivery, with a significant burden in low- and middle-income countries. Preventing HAIs has gained enormous attention from policy makers and healthcare managers and providers, especially in resource-limited settings. Despite policies to enforce infection prevention and control (IPC) measures to prevent HAIs, IPC compliance remains a challenge in hospital settings. In this study, we explore the experiences of healthcare providers and women in the post-natal phase and investigate factors influencing IPC practices in two hospitals in Ghana.

METHODS

The study used a qualitative approach involving semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, and observations among healthcare providers and women in the postnatal phase in two maternity units from January 2019 to June 2019. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim for thematic analysis. The data sets were uploaded into the qualitative software NVivo 12 to facilitate coding and analysis.

FINDINGS

Healthcare providers were driven by the responsibility to provide medical care for their patients and at the same time, protect themselves from infections. IPC facilitators include leadership commitment and support, IPC training and education. Women were informed about IPC in educational talks during antenatal care visits, and their practices were also shaped by their background and their communities. IPC barriers include the poor documentation or 'invisibility' of HAIs, low prioritization of IPC tasks, lack of clear IPC goals and resources, discretionary use of guidelines, and communication-related challenges. The findings demonstrate the need for relevant power holders to position themselves as key drivers of IPC and develop clear goals for IPC. Hospital managers need to take up the responsibility of providing the needed resources and leadership support to facilitate IPC. Patient engagement should be more strategic both within the hospital and at the community level.

Implementing strategies to prevent infections in acute-care settings

This document introduces and explains common implementation concepts and frameworks relevant to healthcare epidemiology and infection prevention and control and can serve as a stand-alone guide or be paired with the "SHEA/IDSA/APIC Compendium of Strategies to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections in Acute Care Hospitals: 2022 Updates," which contain technical implementation guidance for specific healthcare-associated infections. This Compendium article focuses on broad behavioral and socio-adaptive concepts and suggests ways that infection prevention and control teams, healthcare epidemiologists, infection preventionists, and specialty groups may utilize them to deliver high-quality care. Implementation concepts, frameworks, and models can help bridge the "knowing-doing" gap, a term used to describe why practices in healthcare may diverge from those recommended according to evidence. It aims to guide the reader to think about implementation and to find resources suited for a specific setting and circumstances by describing strategies for implementation, including determinants and measurement, as well as the conceptual models and frameworks: 4Es, Behavior Change Wheel, CUSP, European and Mixed Methods, Getting to Outcomes, Model for Improvement, RE-AIM, REP, and Theoretical Domains.

Tailoring implementation interventions of different order in infection prevention and control: A cascadic logic model (IPC-CASCADE)

Implementation interventions in infection prevention and control (IPC) differ by recipients. The two target groups are healthcare workers directly involved in patient care ("frontline") and IPC professionals as proxy agents, that is, implementation support practitioners. While both types of implementation interventions aim to promote compliance with clinical interventions to prevent healthcare-associated infections (HAI), their tailoring may be vastly different, for example, due to different behavioural outcomes. Additionally, IPC teams, as recipients of empowering tailored interventions, are under-researched. To overcome this gap and improve conceptual clarity, we proposed a cascadic logic model for tailored IPC interventions (IPC-CASCADE). In the model, we distinguished between interventions by IPC professionals targeting clinicians and those targeting IPC professionals (first- and second-order implementation interventions, respectively). Tailoring implies selecting behaviour change techniques matched to prospectively-assessed determinants of either clinician compliance (in first-order interventions) or interventions by IPC professionals for frontline workers (in second-order interventions). This interventional cascade is embedded in the prevailing healthcare system. IPC-CASCADE is horizontally structured over time and vertically structured by hierarchy or leadership roles. IPC-CASCADE aims to highlight the potential of increasing the impact of tailored interventions by IPC professionals for clinicians (to improve their compliance) via tailored interventions for IPC professionals (to improve their work as proxy agents). It underlines the links that IPC professionals define between macro contexts (healthcare and hospitals) and frontline workers in HAI prevention. It is specific, i.e., "tailored" to IPC, and expected to assist implementation science to better conceptualise tailoring.

Healthcare personnel experiences implementing carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales infection control measures at a ventilator-capable skilled nursing facility-A qualitative analysis

OBJECTIVE

Ventilator-capable skilled nursing facilities (vSNFs) are critical to the epidemiology and control of antibiotic-resistant organisms. During an infection prevention intervention to control carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE), we conducted a qualitative study to characterize vSNF healthcare personnel beliefs and experiences regarding infection control measures.

DESIGN

A qualitative study involving semistructured interviews.

SETTING

One vSNF in the Chicago, Illinois, metropolitan region.

PARTICIPANTS

The study included 17 healthcare personnel representing management, nursing, and nursing assistants.

METHODS

We used face-to-face, semistructured interviews to measure healthcare personnel experiences with infection control measures at the midpoint of a 2-year quality improvement project.

RESULTS

Healthcare personnel characterized their facility as a home-like environment, yet they recognized that it is a setting where germs were 'invisible' and potentially 'threatening.' Healthcare personnel described elaborate self-protection measures to avoid acquisition or transfer of germs to their own household. Healthcare personnel were motivated to implement infection control measures to protect residents, but many identified structural barriers such as understaffing and time constraints, and some reported persistent preference for soap and water.

CONCLUSIONS

Healthcare personnel in vSNFs, from management to frontline staff, understood germ theory and the significance of multidrug-resistant organism transmission. However, their ability to implement infection control measures was hampered by resource limitations and mixed beliefs regarding the effectiveness of infection control measures. Self-protection from acquiring multidrug-resistant organisms was a strong motivator for healthcare personnel both outside and inside the workplace, and it could explain variation in adherence to infection control measures such as a higher hand hygiene adherence after resident care than before resident care.

Results and lessons from a hospital-wide initiative incentivised by delivery system reform to improve infection prevention and sepsis care

Background

An academic safety-net hospital leveraged the federally funded state Delivery System Reform Incentive Payment programme to implement a hospital-wide initiative to reduce healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) and improve sepsis care.

Methods

The study period was from 2013 to 2017. The setting is a 770-bed urban hospital with six intensive care units and a large emergency department. Key interventions implemented were (1) awareness campaign and clinician engagement, (2) implementation of HAI and sepsis bundles, (3) education of clinical personnel using standardised curriculum on bundles, (4) training of key managers, leaders and personnel in quality improvement methods, and (5) electronic medical record-based clinical decision support. Throughout the 5-year period, staff received frequent, clear, visible and consistent messages from leadership regarding the importance of their participation in this initiative, performing hand hygiene and preventing potential regulatory failures. Several process measures including bundle compliance, hand hygiene and culture of safety were monitored. The primary outcomes were rates of central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), surgical site infection (SSI) and sepsis mortality.

Results

From 2013 to 2017, the hospital-wide rates of HAI reduced: CLABSI from 1.6 to 0.8 per 1000 catheter-days (Poisson regression estimate: −0.19; 95% CI −0.29 to −0.09; p=0.0002), CAUTI from 4.7 to 1.3 per 1000 catheter-days (−0.34; −0.43 to −0.26; p<0.0001) and SSI after 18 types of procedures from 3.4% to 1.3% (−0.29; −0.34 to −0.24; p<0.0001). Mortality of patients presenting to emergency department with sepsis reduced from 9.4% to 2.9% (−0.42; −0.49 to −0.36; p<0.0001). Adherence to bundles of care and hand hygiene and the hospital culture of patient safety improved. Results were sustained through 2019.

Conclusion

A hospital-wide initiative incentivised by the Delivery System Reform Incentive Payment programme succeeded in reducing HAI and sepsis mortality over 5 years in a sustainable manner.

Nurses as antimicrobial stewards: Recognition, confidence, and organizational factors across nine hospitals

BACKGROUND

There are national calls to engage nurses as antimicrobial stewards, but it is unknown how patient safety culture influences nurses' antimicrobial stewardship (AS) involvement.

METHODS

Cross-sectional survey to determine bedside nurses' recognition and performance confidence in AS. Nine hospitals ranged in size from 42 to 562 beds serving pediatric and adult populations in 2 different metropolitan areas. Composite scores for nursing practices, performance confidence, and organizational factors were developed and correlated. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Tukey HSD post-hoc tests and nonparametric (Kruskal-Wallis) tests with Bonferroni adjusted P values for multiple comparisons were used to evaluate differences by clinical unit and years of clinical experience. Free text comments were categorized by theme.

RESULTS

A total of 558 nurses participated (13% response rate). A significant positive association r_s = 0.454, P < .001 was found between nurses' beliefs about nursing practices that contribute to AS processes and their confidence to perform. Ninety one nurses provided comments with 50 statements indicating the primary barrier to stewardship were organizational factors including perceived lack of a safety culture.

CONCLUSIONS

Nurses identified a professional role in AS processes, though safety culture inhibited their involvement. These findings can help enhance the inclusion of nurses in AS efforts.

Accelerating reductions in antimicrobial resistance: Evaluating the effectiveness of an intervention program implemented by an infectious disease consultant

OBJECTIVES

Very few infectious disease physicians exist in Japan. A concerted infection control intervention program involving an antimicrobial stewardship team and multiple components was designed and implemented in multiple hospitals from 2010. Here, we aimed to retrospectively evaluate the intervention program's effectiveness.

METHODS

The frequencies of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa were monitored in four acute-care hospitals. The primary goal of the program was to accelerate the speed of decline of such resistance. A quasi-experimental study design was used to detect accelerated rates of increases in drug susceptibility, comparing time before and after the intervention.

RESULTS

Both MRSA and drug-resistant P. aeruginosa exhibited decreasing trends (p < 0.01 for all four hospitals and all bacterial cultures). Compared with the whole of Japan, the decreasing trends for MRSA and drug-resistant P. aeruginosa in the four hospitals accelerated after the intervention program was established; notably, the rate of MRSA decrease increased by 50%-150% of its original value.

CONCLUSIONS

The intervention program successfully reduced the proportion of drug resistance in the four hospitals. Centering on systematic education, decision-making support, and implementation and oversight by an infectious disease consultant, this program was shown to be effective where specialist physicians are scarce.

Infection prevention practices in the Netherlands: results from a National Survey

Objective

To examine the extent to which acute care hospitals in the Netherlands have adopted recommended practices to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), and Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI).

Methods

Between 18 July 2017 and 31 October 2017, we surveyed the infection prevention teams of all acute care hospitals in the Netherlands. The survey instrument was based on the 'Translating Healthcare-Associated Infection Prevention Research into Practice' (TRIP) questionnaire and adapted to the Dutch context. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the reported regular use of CAUTI, CLABSI, VAP, and CDI prevention practices as well as the hospital characteristics.

Results

Out of 72 eligible hospitals, 47 (65.3%) responded. Surveillance systems for monitoring CAUTI, CLABSI, VAP, and CDI were present in 17.8, 95.4, 26.2, and 77.3% of hospitals, respectively. Antimicrobial stewardship programs have been established in 91.5% of participating hospitals. For CAUTI, the majority of hospitals regularly used aseptic technique during catheter insertion (95%) and portable bladder ultrasound scanners (86.1%). Intermittent catheterization and catheter stop-orders were regularly used by 65.8 and 62.2% of hospitals. For CLABSI, all hospitals regularly used maximum sterile barrier precautions and chlorhexidine gluconate for insertion site antisepsis. Avoidance of the femoral site for central line insertions was regularly used by 65.9% of hospitals. Urinary catheters and central-lines impregnated with antibiotics or antiseptics were rarely used (≤ 5%). Selective decontamination strategies for preventing VAP were used in 84% of hospitals. With the exception of disposable thermometers (31.8%), all prevention practices to prevent CDI were regularly used by more than 80% of hospitals.

Conclusions

Most Dutch hospitals report regular use of recommended practices for preventing CLABSI and CDI. Several specific practices to prevent CAUTI and VAP were less frequently used, however, providing an opportunity for improvement.

Multistate programme to reduce catheter-associated infections in intensive care units with elevated infection rates

Background

Preventing central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) and catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) remains challenging in intensive care units (ICUs).

Objective

The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Safety Program for ICUs aimed to reduce CLABSI and CAUTI in units with elevated rates.

Methods

Invited hospitals had at least one adult ICU with elevated CLABSI or CAUTI rates, defined by a positive cumulative attributable difference metric (CAD >0) in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s Targeted Assessment for Prevention strategy. This externally facilitated programme implemented by a national project team and state hospital associations included on-demand video modules and live webinars reviewing a two-tiered approach for implementing key technical and socioadaptive factors to prevent catheter infections, using principles and tools based on the Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program. CLABSI, CAUTI and catheter use data were collected (preintervention 13 months, intervention 12 months). Multilevel negative binomial models assessed changes in catheter-associated infection rates and catheter use.

Results

Of 366 recruited ICUs from 220 hospitals in 16 states and Puerto Rico for two cohorts, 280 ICUs completed the programme including infection outcome reporting; 274 ICUs had complete outcome data for analyses. Statistically significant reductions in adjusted infection rates were not observed (CLABSI incidence rate ratio (IRR)=0.75, 95% CI 0.52 to 1.08, p=0.13; CAUTI IRR=0.79, 95% CI 0.59 to 1.06, p=0.12). Adjusted central line utilisation (IRR=0.97, 95% CI 0.93 to 1.00, p=0.09) and adjusted urinary catheter utilisation were unchanged (IRR=0.98, 95% CI 0.95 to 1.01, p=0.14).

Conclusion

This multistate programme targeted ICUs with elevated catheter infection rates, but yielded no statistically significant reduction in CLABSI, CAUTI or catheter utilisation in the first two of six planned cohorts. Improvements in the interventions based on lessons learnt from these initial cohorts are being applied to subsequent cohorts.

Change in staff perspectives on indwelling urinary catheter use after implementation of an intervention bundle in seven Swiss acute care hospitals: results of a before/after survey study

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate changes in staff perspectives towards indwelling urinary catheter (IUC) use after implementation of a 1-year quality improvement project.

DESIGN

Repeated cross-sectional survey at baseline (October 2016) and 12-month follow-up (October 2017).

SETTING

Seven acute care hospitals in Switzerland.

PARTICIPANTS

The survey was targeted at all nursing and medical staff members working at the participating hospitals at the time of survey distribution. A total of 1579 staff members participated in the baseline survey (T₀) (49% response rate) and 1527 participated in the follow-up survey (T₁) (47% response rate).

INTERVENTION

A multimodal intervention bundle, consisting of an evidence-based indication list, daily re-evaluation of ongoing catheter need and staff training, was implemented over the course of 9 months.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Staff knowledge (15 items), perception of current practices and culture (scale 1-7), self-reported responsibilities (multiple-response question) and determinants of behaviour (scale 1-7) before and after implementation of the intervention bundle.

RESULTS

The mean number of correctly answered knowledge questions increased significantly between the two survey periods (T₀: 10.4, T₁: 11.0; p<0.001). Self-reported responsibilities with regard to IUC management by nurses and physicians changed only slightly over time. Perception of current practices and culture in regard to safe urinary catheter use increased significantly (T₀: 5.3, T₁: 5.5; p<0.001). Significant changes were also observed for determinants of behaviour (T₀: 5.3, T₁: 5.6; p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

We found small but significant changes in staff perceptions after implementation of an evidence-based intervention bundle. Efforts now need to be targeted at sustaining and reinforcing these changes, so that restrictive use of IUCs becomes an integral part of the hospital culture.

Healthcare-associated infections in Australia: tackling the 'known unknowns'

Australia does not have a national healthcare-associated infection (HAI) surveillance program. Without national surveillance, we do not understand the burden of HAIs, nor can we accurately assess the effects of national infection prevention initiatives. Recent research has demonstrated disparity between existing jurisdictional-based HAI surveillance activity while also identifying broad key stakeholder support for the establishment of a national program. A uniform surveillance program will also address growing concerns about hospital performance measurements and enable public reporting of hospital data.

Factors affecting annual compensation and professional development support for infection preventionists: Implications for recruitment and retention

BACKGROUND

Factors affecting annual compensation and professional development support have been studied for various healthcare professions. However, there is little understanding of these factors for infection preventionists (IPs).

METHODS

Using secondary data from the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology 2015 MegaSurvey, we designed a descriptive, correlational study to describe IP annual compensation and professional development support. We tested for associations between demographic variables and annual compensation and investigated for predictors of higher annual compensation.

RESULTS

Median salary for IPs was $75,000. IPs who indicated that their compensation was based on industry benchmarks reported a median salary of $85,000 (P < .001). IPs with advanced degrees reported a median salary of $90,000. IPs with bachelor's degrees or lower reported a median salary of $50,000 (P < .001). IPs with CIC® reported a median salary of $85,000. IPs without CIC® reported a median salary of $65,000 (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

This study can be used to develop recruitment and retention guidelines that lead to a well-educated, well-compensated, and competent IP workforce.

Update to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee Guideline for the Prevention of Surgical Site Infection (2017): A summary, review, and strategies for implementation

Surgical site infections remain a common cause of morbidity, mortality, and increased length of stay and cost amongst hospitalized patients in the United States. This article summarizes the evidence used to inform the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee Guideline for the Prevention of Surgical Site Infection (2017), and highlights key updates and new recommendations. We also present specific suggestions for how infection preventionists can play a central role in guideline implementation by translating these recommendations into evidence-based policies and practices in their facility.

Evaluation of the association between Nursing Home Survey on Patient Safety culture (NHSOPS) measures and catheter-associated urinary tract infections: results of a national collaborative

BACKGROUND

Recent efforts to reduce patient infection rates emphasise the importance of safety culture. However, little evidence exists linking measures of safety culture and infection rates, in part because of the difficulty of collecting both safety culture and infection data from a large number of nursing homes.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between nursing home safety culture, measured with the Nursing Home Survey on Patient Safety Culture (NHSOPS), and catheter-associated urinary tract infection rates (CAUTI) using data from a recent national collaborative for preventing healthcare-associated infections in nursing homes.

METHODS

In this prospective cohort study of nursing homes, facility staff completed the NHSOPS at intervention start and 11 months later. National Healthcare Safety Network-defined CAUTI rates were collected monthly for 1 year. Negative binomial models examined CAUTI rates as a function of both initial and time-varying facility-aggregated NHSOPS components, adjusted for facility characteristics.

RESULTS

Staff from 196 participating nursing homes completed the NHSOPS and reported CAUTI rates monthly. Nursing homes saw a 52% reduction in CAUTI rates over the intervention period. Seven of 13 NHSOPS measures saw improvements, with the largest improvements for 'Management Support for Resident Safety' (3.7 percentage point increase in facility-level per cent positive response, on average) and 'Communication Openness' (2.5 percentage points). However, these increases were statistically insignificant, and multivariate models did not find significant association between CAUTI rates and initial or over-time NHSOPS domains.

CONCLUSIONS

This large national collaborative of nursing homes saw declining CAUTI rates as well as improvements in several NHSOPS domains. However, no association was found between initial or over-time NHSOPS scores and CAUTI rates.

Leadership rounds to reduce health care-associated infections

BACKGROUND

Evidence-based guidelines exist to reduce health care-associated infections (HAIs). Leadership rounds are one tool leaders can use to ensure compliance with guidelines, but have not been studied specifically for the reduction of HAIs. This study examines HAI leadership rounds at one facility.

METHODS

We explored unit-based HAI leadership rounds led by 2 hospital leaders at a large academic hospital. Leadership rounds were observed on 19 units, recorded, and coded to identify themes. Themes were linked to the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research and used to guide interviews with frontline staff members.

RESULTS

Staff members disclosed unit-specific problems and readily engaged in problem-solving with top hospital leaders. These themes appeared over 350 times within 22 rounds. Findings revealed that leaders used words that demonstrated fallibility and modeled curiosity, 2 factors associated with learning climate and psychologic safety. These 2 themes appeared 115 and 142 times, respectively. The flexible nature of the rounds appeared to be conducive for reflection and evaluation, which was coded 161 times.

CONCLUSIONS

Each interaction between leaders and frontline staff can foster psychologic safety, which can lead to open problem-solving to reduce barriers to implementation. Discovering specific communication and structural factors that contribute to psychologic safety may be powerful in reducing HAIs.

Implementation in the midst of complexity: Using ethnography to study health care-associated infection prevention and control

BACKGROUND

Contextual factors associated with health care settings make reducing health care-associated infections (HAIs) a complex task. The aim of this article is to highlight how ethnography can assist in understanding contextual factors that support or hinder the implementation of evidence-based practices for reducing HAIs.

METHODS

We conducted a review of ethnographic studies specifically related to HAI prevention and control in the last 5 years (2012-2017).

RESULTS

Twelve studies specific to HAIs and ethnographic methods were found. Researchers used various methods with video-reflexive sessions used in 6 of the 12 studies. Ethnography was used to understand variation in data reporting, identify barriers to adherence, explore patient perceptions of isolation practices and highlight the influence of physical design on infection prevention practices. The term ethnography was used to describe varied research methods. Most studies were conducted outside the United States, and authors indicate insights gained using ethnographic methods (whether observations, interviews, or reflexive video recording) as beneficial to unraveling the complexities of HAI prevention.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethnography is well-suited for HAI prevention, especially video-reflexive ethnography, for activating patients and clinicians in infection control work. In this era of increasing pressure to reduce HAIs within complex work systems, ethnographic methods can promote understanding of contextual factors and may expedite translation evidence to practice.

Evaluation of the association between Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture (HSOPS) measures and catheter-associated infections: results of two national collaboratives

BACKGROUND

The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) has funded national collaboratives using the Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program to reduce rates of two catheter-associated infections-central-line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) and catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI), using evidence-based intervention bundles to improve technical aspects of care and socioadaptive approaches to foster a culture of safety.

OBJECTIVE

Examine the association between hospital units' results for the Hospital Survey on Patient Safety Culture (HSOPS) and catheter-associated infection rates.

METHODS

We analysed data from two prospective cohort studies from acute-care intensive care units (ICUs) and non-ICUs participating in the AHRQ CLABSI and CAUTI collaboratives. National Healthcare Safety Network catheter-associated infections per 1000 catheter-days were collected at baseline and quarterly postimplementation. The HSOPS was collected at baseline and again 1 year later. Infection rates were modelled using multilevel negative binomial models as a function of HSOPS components over time, adjusted for hospital-level characteristics.

RESULTS

1821 units from 1079 hospitals (CLABSI) and 1576 units from 949 hospitals (CAUTI) were included. Among responding units, infection rates declined over the project periods (by 47% for CLABSI, by 23% for CAUTI, unadjusted). No significant associations were found between CLABSI or CAUTI rates and HSOPS measures at baseline or over time.

CONCLUSIONS

We found no association between results of the HSOPS and catheter-associated infection rates when measured at baseline and postintervention in two successful large national collaboratives focused on prevention of CLABSI and CAUTI. These results suggest that it may be possible to improve CLABSI and CAUTI rates without making significant changes in safety culture, particularly as measured by instruments like HSOPS.

Improving patient safety culture in general practice: an interview study

BACKGROUND

When improving patient safety a positive safety culture is key. As little is known about improving patient safety culture in primary care, this study examined whether administering a culture questionnaire with or without a complementary workshop could be used as an intervention for improving safety culture.

AIM

To gain insight into how two interventions affected patient safety culture in everyday practice.

DESIGN AND SETTING

After conducting a randomised control trial of two interventions, this was a qualitative study conducted in 30 general practices to aid interpretation of the previous quantitative findings.

METHOD

Interviews were conducted at practice locations (n = 27) with 24 GPs and 24 practice nurses. The theory of communities of practice--in particular, its concepts of a domain, a community, and a practice--was used to interpret the findings by examining which elements were or were not present in the participating practices.

RESULTS

Communal awareness of the problem was only raised after getting together and discussing patient safety. The combination of a questionnaire and workshop enhanced the interaction of team members and nourished team feelings. This shared experience also helped them to understand and develop tools and language for daily practice.

CONCLUSION

In order for patient safety culture to improve, the safety culture questionnaire was more successful when accompanied by a practice workshop. Initial discussion and negotiation of shared goals during the workshop fuelled feelings of coherence and belonging to a community wishing to learn about enhancing patient safety. Team meetings and day-to-day interactions enhanced further liaison and sharing, making patient safety a common and conscious goal.

A Program to Prevent Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection in Acute Care

BACKGROUND

Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (UTI) is a common device-associated infection in hospitals. Both technical factors--appropriate catheter use, aseptic insertion, and proper maintenance--and socioadaptive factors, such as cultural and behavioral changes in hospital units, are important in preventing catheter-associated UTI.

METHODS

The national Comprehensive Unit-based Safety Program, funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, aimed to reduce catheter-associated UTI in intensive care units (ICUs) and non-ICUs. The main program features were dissemination of information to sponsor organizations and hospitals, data collection, and guidance on key technical and socioadaptive factors in the prevention of catheter-associated UTI. Data on catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates were collected during three phases: baseline (3 months), implementation (2 months), and sustainability (12 months). Multilevel negative binomial models were used to assess changes in catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates.

RESULTS

Data were obtained from 926 units (59.7% were non-ICUs, and 40.3% were ICUs) in 603 hospitals in 32 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The unadjusted catheter-associated UTI rate decreased overall from 2.82 to 2.19 infections per 1000 catheter-days. In an adjusted analysis, catheter-associated UTI rates decreased from 2.40 to 2.05 infections per 1000 catheter-days (incidence rate ratio, 0.86; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.76 to 0.96; P=0.009). Among non-ICUs, catheter use decreased from 20.1% to 18.8% (incidence rate ratio, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.90 to 0.96; P<0.001) and catheter-associated UTI rates decreased from 2.28 to 1.54 infections per 1000 catheter-days (incidence rate ratio, 0.68; 95% CI, 0.56 to 0.82; P<0.001). Catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates were largely unchanged in ICUs. Tests for heterogeneity (ICU vs. non-ICU) were significant for catheter use (P=0.004) and catheter-associated UTI rates (P=0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

A national prevention program appears to reduce catheter use and catheter-associated UTI rates in non-ICUs. (Funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.).

Preoperative risk prediction of surgical site infection requiring hospitalization or reoperation in patients undergoing vascular surgery

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to develop a surgical site infection (SSI) prediction score for risk assessment before elective vascular surgery.

METHODS

We conducted a nested case-control study among patients who underwent elective vascular (abdominal aortic and peripheral arterial) surgery from January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2007, at Mayo Clinic (Rochester, Minn) an academic tertiary surgical center. Cases were patients with SSI requiring hospitalization; controls (one or two per case) were matched on type of procedure and date of surgery. Clinical data were collected by chart review. A risk score based on preoperative variables was developed using multivariable logistic regression and bootstrap resampling. The C statistic, equivalent to the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, was used to assess discrimination. Calibration was assessed by plotting percentile risk groups of model-predicted values against observed proportions of subjects with SSI.

RESULTS

Eighty-four cases were compared with 160 controls. Preoperative variables independently associated with SSI risk were critical limb ischemia, previous SSI, prior revascularization procedure, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. A prediction model containing these variables was developed (model and risk score C statistic of 0.737 and 0.727, respectively). The calibration curve did not appear to deviate appreciably from the 45-degree line of identity.

CONCLUSIONS

We developed an SSI risk score based on noninvasive preoperative variables with acceptable discrimination and calibration. This tool needs prospective and external validation.

Necessary Infrastructure of Infection Prevention and Healthcare Epidemiology Programs: A Review

The scope of a healthcare institution's infection prevention and control/healthcare epidemiology program (IPC/HE) should be driven by the size and complexity of the patient population served, that population's risk for healthcare-associated infection (HAI), and local, state, and national regulatory and accreditation requirements. Essential activities of all IPC/HE programs include but are not limited to the following: ∙ Surveillance.∙ Performance improvement to reduce HAI ∙ Acute event response, including outbreak investigation ∙ Education and training of both healthcare personnel and patients ∙ Reporting of HAI to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Healthcare Safety Network as well as entities required by law.

Enhancing Resident Safety by Preventing Healthcare-Associated Infection: A National Initiative to Reduce Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections in Nursing Homes

Preventing healthcare-associated infection (HAI) is a key contributor to enhancing resident safety in nursing homes. In 2013, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services approved a plan to enhance resident safety by reducing HAIs in nursing homes, with particular emphasis on reducing indwelling catheter use and catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI). Lessons learned from a recent multimodal Targeted Infection Prevention program in a group of nursing homes as well as a national initiative to prevent CAUTI in over 950 acute care hospitals called "On the CUSP: STOP CAUTI" will now be implemented in nearly 500 nursing homes in all 50 states through a project funded by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ). This "AHRQ Safety Program in Long-Term Care: HAIs/CAUTI" will emphasize professional development in catheter utilization, catheter care and maintenance, and antimicrobial stewardship as well as promoting patient safety culture, team building, and leadership engagement. We anticipate that an approach integrating technical and socio-adaptive principles will serve as a model for future initiatives to reduce other infections, multidrug resistant organisms, and noninfectious adverse events among nursing home residents.

Implementing a National Program to Reduce Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection: A Quality Improvement Collaboration of State Hospital Associations, Academic Medical Centers, Professional Societies, and Governmental Agencies

Catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) represents a significant proportion of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The US Department of Health and Human Services issued a plan to reduce HAIs with a target 25% reduction of CAUTI by 2013. Michigan's successful collaborative to reduce unnecessary use of urinary catheters and CAUTI was based on a partnership between diverse hospitals, the state hospital association (SHA), and academic medical centers. Taking the lessons learned from Michigan, we are now spreading this work throughout the 50 states. This national spread leverages the expertise of different groups and organizations for the unified goal of reducing catheter-related harm. The key components of the project are (1) centralized coordination of the effort and dissemination of information to SHAs and hospitals, (2) data collection based on established definitions and approaches, (3) focused guidance on the technical practices that will prevent CAUTI, (4) emphasis on understanding the socioadaptive aspects (both the general, unit-wide issues and CAUTI-specific challenges), and (5) partnering with specialty organizations and governmental agencies who have expertise in the relevant subject area. The work may serve in the future as a model for other large improvement efforts to address other hospital-acquired conditions, such as venous thromboembolism and falls.

Operational efficiency of an immunization clinic attached to rural health training centre in delhi, India: a time and motion study

Background. Obtaining baseline data about current patterns of work is important for assessing the effects of interventions designed to improve care delivery. Time and motion studies allow for the most accurate measurement of structured components. Therefore, the present study was conducted to study the operational efficiency of an immunization clinic in Delhi, India. Methods. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted at the immunization clinic of Rural Health Training Centre in Delhi, India, from January 2014 to March 2014. The study composed two stage evaluations, a passive observation and a time and motion study. Systemic random sampling method was used to select 863 mothers/caregivers attending the immunization clinic. Results. At the immunization clinic, the study participants spent 64.1% of their total time in waiting. For new cases, the mean time taken for initial registration and receiving postvaccination advice was found to be significantly longer than old cases. Delivering health care services took more time during Mondays and also during the first hour of the day. Conclusion. Results of this study will guide public health decision-makers at all government levels in planning and implementation of immunization programs in developing countries.

Engaging health care workers to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection and avert patient harm

Preventing catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) remains a significant challenge for US hospitals. The "On the CUSP: Stop CAUTI" initiative represents the single largest national effort (involving >950 hospitals) to mitigate urinary catheter risk. The program brings together key organizations to assist state hospital associations and hospitals by providing education and coaching support, addressing both the technical aspects of preventing CAUTI and CAUTI-specific socio-adaptive challenges. At the local level, engaging health care workers, from physicians and nurses to other ancillary services, is critical. This includes (1) making the importance of addressing CAUTI stakeholder specific, (2) ensuring support from leaders of essential disciplines, (3) underscoring the importance of the collaborative nature of CAUTI prevention, and (4) identifying champions within the organization to lead and be accountable for the work. Sustainability is ensured by integrating the process into the health care worker's daily routine activities.

Sustained reduction of central line-associated bloodstream infections outside the intensive care unit with a multimodal intervention focusing on central line maintenance

BACKGROUND

Central venous catheter use is common outside the intensive care units (ICUs), but prevention in this setting is not well studied. We initiated surveillance for central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs) outside the ICU setting and studied the impact of a multimodal intervention on the incidence of CLABSIs across multiple hospitals.

METHODS

This project was constructed as a prospective preintervention-postintervention design. The project comprised 3 phases (preintervention [baseline], intervention, and postintervention) over a 4.5-year period (2008-2012) and was implemented through a collaborative of 37 adult non-ICU wards at 6 hospitals in the Rochester, NY area. The intervention focused on engagement of nursing staff and leadership, nursing education on line care maintenance, competence evaluation, audits of line care, and regular feedback on CLABSI rates. Quarterly rates were compared over time in relation to intervention implementation.

RESULTS

The overall CLABSI rate for all participating units decreased from 2.6/1000 line-days preintervention to 2.1/1,000 line-days during the intervention and to 1.3/1,000 line-days postintervention, a 50% reduction (95% confidence interval, .40-.59) compared with the preintervention period (P .0179).

CONCLUSION

A multipronged approach blending both the adaptive and technical aspects of care including front line engagement, education, execution of best practices, and evaluation of both process and outcome measures may provide an effective strategy for reducing CLABSI rates outside the ICU.

Maintain the gain: program to sustain performance improvement in environmental cleaning

Sustaining performance is a difficult and often overlooked aspect of quality improvement and implementation science. Over a 4-year period, we observed that monthly feedback of performance data in face-to-face meetings with frontline personnel was crucial in maintaining environmental-cleaning effectiveness in adult critical care units.

Positive Deviance: A New Tool for Infection Prevention and Patient Safety

Positive deviance (PD) may have an important role in infection prevention and patient safety in the hospital. There are many descriptions of successful stories of PD in different sectors from public health to education to business. PD has been applied in the healthcare setting to improve hand hygiene compliance, reduce methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and reduce bloodstream infections in an outpatient hemodialysis center. PD promotes dialogue among leaders, managers and healthcare workers, which is a key factor in establishing a safety culture. It also enables cultural changes aimed at empowering frontline workers (the positive deviants) to innovate and improve compliance with infection prevention measures. The structure and the process of PD, and its ability to offer a space for experience discussions, changing ideas and making plans that emerge from team participation will also be discussed.

Preventing catheter-associated urinary tract infection in the United States: a national comparative study

IMPORTANCE

Despite the national goal to reduce catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) by 25% by 2013, limited data exist describing prevention practices for CAUTI in US hospitals and none associate national practice use to CAUTI-specific standardized infection ratios (SIRs).

OBJECTIVES

To identify practices currently used to prevent CAUTI and to compare use and SIRs for a national sample of US hospitals with hospitals in the state of Michigan, which launched a CAUTI prevention initiative in 2007 ("Keystone Bladder Bundle Initiative").

DESIGN AND SETTING

In 2009, we surveyed infection preventionists at a sample of US hospitals and all Michigan hospitals. CAUTI rate differences between Michigan and non-Michigan hospitals were assessed using SIRs.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 470 infection preventionists.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Reported regular use of CAUTI prevention practices and CAUTI-specific SIR data.

RESULTS

Michigan hospitals, compared with hospitals in the rest of the United States, more frequently participated in collaboratives to reduce health care-associated infection (94% vs 67%, P < .001) and used bladder scanners (53% vs 39%, P = .04), as well as catheter reminders or stop orders and/or nurse-initiated discontinuation (44% vs 23%, P < .001). More frequent use of preventive practices coincided with a 25% reduction in CAUTI rates in the state of Michigan, a significantly greater reduction than the 6% overall decrease observed in the rest of the United States.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

We observed more frequent use of key prevention practices and a lower rate of CAUTI in Michigan hospitals relative to non-Michigan hospitals. This may be related to Michigan's significantly higher use of practices aimed at timely removal of urinary catheters, the key focus area of Michigan's Keystone Bladder Bundle Initiative.

Perceived strength of evidence supporting practices to prevent health care-associated infection: results from a national survey of infection prevention personnel

BACKGROUND

Limited data exist describing the perceived strength of evidence behind practices to prevent common health care-associated infections (HAIs). We conducted a national survey of infection prevention personnel to assess perception of the evidence for various preventive practices. We were also curious whether lead infection preventionist certification in infection prevention and control (CIC) correlated with perceptions of the evidence.

METHODS

In 2009, we mailed surveys to 703 infection prevention personnel using a national random sample of US hospitals and all Veterans Affairs hospitals; the response rate was 68%. The survey asked the respondent to grade the strength of evidence behind prevention practices. We considered "strong" evidence as being 4 and 5 on a Likert scale. Multivariable logistic regression models assessed associations between CIC status and the perceived strength of the evidence.

RESULTS

The following practices were perceived by 90% or more of respondents as having strong evidence: alcohol-based hand rub, aseptic urinary catheter insertion, chlorhexidine for antisepsis prior to central venous catheter insertion, maximum sterile barriers during central venous catheter insertion, avoiding the femoral site for central venous catheter insertion, and semirecumbent positioning of the ventilated patient. CIC status was significantly associated with the perception of the evidence for several practices.

CONCLUSION

Successful implementation of evidence-based practices should consider how key individuals in the translational process assess the strength of that evidence.

Competency in infection prevention: a conceptual approach to guide current and future practice

Professional competency has traditionally been divided into 2 essential components: knowledge and skill. More recent definitions have recommended additional components such as communication, values, reasoning, and teamwork. A standard, widely accepted, comprehensive definition remains an elusive goal. For infection preventionists (IPs), the requisite elements of competence are most often embedded in the IP position description, which may or may not reference national standards or guidelines. For this reason, there is widespread variation among these elements and the criteria they include. As the demand for IP expertise continues to rapidly expand, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc, made a strategic commitment to develop a conceptual model of IP competency that could be applicable in all practice settings. The model was designed to be used in combination with organizational training and evaluation tools already in place. Ideally, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology, Inc, model will complement similar competency efforts undertaken in non-US countries and/or international organizations. This conceptual model not only describes successful IP practice as it is today but is also meant to be forward thinking by emphasizing those areas that will be especially critical in the next 3 to 5 years. The paper also references a skill assessment resource developed by Community and Hospital Infection Control Association (CHICA)-Canada and a competency model developed by the Infection Prevention Society (IPS), which offer additional support of infection prevention as a global patient safety mission.

Effectiveness and limitations of hand hygiene promotion on decreasing healthcare-associated infections

BACKGROUND

Limited data describe the sustained impact of hand hygiene programs (HHPs) implemented in teaching hospitals, where the burden of healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) is high. We use a quasi-experimental, before and after, study design with prospective hospital-wide surveillance of HAIs to assess the cost effectiveness of HHPs.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

A 4-year hospital-wide HHP, with particular emphasis on using an alcohol-based hand rub, was implemented in April 2004 at a 2,200-bed teaching hospital in Taiwan. Compliance was measured by direct observation and the use of hand rub products. Poisson regression analyses were employed to evaluate the densities and trends of HAIs during the preintervention (January 1999 to March 2004) and intervention (April 2004 to December 2007) periods. The economic impact was estimated based on a case-control study in Taiwan. We observed 8,420 opportunities for hand hygiene during the study period. Compliance improved from 43.3% in April 2004 to 95.6% in 2007 (p<.001), and was closely correlated with increased consumption of the alcohol-based hand rub (r = 0.9399). The disease severity score (Charlson comorbidity index) increased (p = .002) during the intervention period. Nevertheless, we observed an 8.9% decrease in HAIs and a decline in the occurrence of bloodstream, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, extensively drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii, and intensive care unit infections. The intervention had no discernable impact on HAI rates in the hematology/oncology wards. The net benefit of the HHP was US$5,289,364, and the benefit-cost ratio was 23.7 with a 3% discount rate.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of a HHP reduces preventable HAIs and is cost effective.