Early and Adult Social Environments Shape Sex-Specific Actuarial Senescence Patterns in a Cooperative Breeder

Food, weather, and population density, not number of helpers, drive overwinter survival in Florida Scrub-Jays

Survival is affected by many ecological factors including food, weather, population density, and predation pressure, but documenting survival rates together with all these associated variables requires long-term observational and ecological data from a large, marked population. We used 33 years of data on Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens) demography, local weather, and food availability to assess determinants of jay survival during the non-breeding season (September to February). We used the known-fate model from program MARK to analyze the probability of survival for breeders and juveniles while independently testing multiple covariates. Breeder survival increased when territory size was larger, decreased when local population density was higher, and did not vary with mean daily minimum temperature in the winter. Juvenile survival slightly increased with mean daily minimum temperature in the winter but showed no association with territory size or local population density. For both breeders and juveniles, odds of survival increased with presence of both breeders in the territory and higher acorn availability, and decreased with higher total winter rainfall. Neither breeder nor juvenile survival was correlated with number of helpers or juveniles in the group. Our results emphasize the importance of environmental variables in driving adult and juvenile survival in this declining endangered bird.

More social species live longer, have longer generation times and longer reproductive windows

The role of sociality in the demography of animals has become an intense focus of research in recent decades. However, efforts to understand the sociality-demography nexus have hitherto focused on single species or isolated taxonomic groups. Consequently, we lack generality regarding how sociality associates with demographic traits within the Animal Kingdom. Here, I propose a continuum of sociality, from solitary to tightly social, and test whether this continuum correlates with the key demographic properties of 152 species, from jellyfish to humans. After correction for body mass and phylogenetic relationships, I show that the sociality continuum is associated with key life history traits: more social species live longer, postpone maturity, have longer generation time and greater probability of achieving reproduction than solitary, gregarious, communal or colonial species. Contrary to the social buffering hypothesis, sociality does not result in more buffered populations. While more social species have a lower ability to benefit from disturbances, they display greater resistance than more solitary species. Finally, I also show that sociality does not shape reproductive or actuarial senescence rates. This cross-taxonomic examination of sociality across the demography of 13 taxonomic classes highlights key ways in which individual interactions shape most aspects of animal demography.This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Understanding age and society using natural populations'.

No evidence of early life resource pulse effects on age-specific variation in survival, reproduction and body mass of female Siberian flying squirrels

Understanding the diversity and causes of senescence patterns in the wild remains a challenging task, in particular among fast-living species for which senescence patterns have been poorly studied. Early life environmental conditions can shape senescence by influencing trade-offs between early and late life performance (disposable soma theory) or individual fitness through lifelong positive effects (silver spoon effects). Using a 23-year-long monitoring dataset of two populations of Siberian flying squirrels (Pteromys volans L.) in western Finland, we analysed the occurrence, onset and rate of senescence in female survival, body mass and reproductive performance. We also examined how early life pulsed resources (tree masting during the year of birth) influence age-specific variations in these traits. Our results indicate that survival senescence occurs after sexual maturity from 3 years of age. Females experiencing high resource availability at birth tended to survive better, but the age-specific trend was not affected by early life resource conditions. Maternal body mass declined slightly with age, starting at 4 years, regardless of early resource conditions. Similarly, among reproductive traits, we showed late-onset senescence in both litter size and annual reproductive probability, with no evidence supporting an effect of early life resources on these trends. We found no decline in juvenile body mass or in the juvenile size-number trade-off with maternal age. Our findings suggest that pulsed resources experienced at birth have a limited long-lasting impact on the life-history traits of this fast-living rodent, with no significant effect on senescence patterns.

Five years later, with double the demographic data, naked mole-rat mortality rates continue to defy Gompertzian laws by not increasing with age

The naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) is a mouse-sized rodent species, notable for its eusociality and long lifespan. Previously, we reported that demographic aging, i.e., the exponential increase of mortality hazard that accompanies advancing age in mammals and other organisms, does not occur in naked mole-rats (Ruby et al., 2018), a finding that has potential implications for human healthy aging. The demographic data supporting that conclusion had taken over three decades to accumulate, starting with the original rearing of H. glaber in captivity. This finding was controversial since many of the animals in that study were relatively young. In the 5 years following that study, we have doubled our quantity of demographic data. Here, we re-evaluated our prior conclusions in light of these new data and found them to be not only supported but indeed strengthened. We additionally provided insight into the social dynamics of captive H. glaber with data and analyses of body weight and colony size versus mortality. Finally, we provide a phylogenetically proximal comparator in the form of lifespan data from our Damaraland mole-rat (Fukomys damarensis) colony and demographic meta-analysis of those data along with published data from Ansell's mole-rat (Fukomys anselli). We found Fukomys mortality hazard to increase gradually with age, an observation with inferences on the evolution of exceptional lifespan among mole-rats and the ecological factors that may have accompanied that evolution.

Advancing methods for the biodemography of aging within social contexts

Several social dimensions including social integration, status, early-life adversity, and their interactions across the life course can predict health, reproduction, and mortality in humans. Accordingly, the social environment plays a fundamental role in the emergence of phenotypes driving the evolution of aging. Recent work placing human social gradients on a biological continuum with other species provides a useful evolutionary context for aging questions, but there is still a need for a unified evolutionary framework linking health and aging within social contexts. Here, we summarize current challenges to understand the role of the social environment in human life courses. Next, we review recent advances in comparative biodemography and propose a biodemographic perspective to address socially driven health phenotype distributions and their evolutionary consequences using a nonhuman primate population. This new comparative approach uses evolutionary demography to address the joint dynamics of populations, social dimensions, phenotypes, and life history parameters. The long-term goal is to advance our understanding of the link between individual social environments, population-level outcomes, and the evolution of aging.

Sex bias in mortality risk changes over the lifespan of bottlenose dolphins

Research on sex biases in longevity in mammals often assumes that male investment in competition results in a female survival advantage that is constant throughout life. We use 35 years of longitudinal data on 1003 wild bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) to examine age-specific mortality, demonstrating a time-varying effect of sex on mortality hazard over the five-decade lifespan of a social mammal. Males are at higher risk of mortality than females during the juvenile period, but the gap between male and female mortality hazard closes in the mid-teens, coincident with the onset of female reproduction. Female mortality hazard is non-significantly higher than male mortality hazard in adulthood, resulting in a moderate male bias in the oldest age class. Bottlenose dolphins have an intensely male-competitive mating system, and juvenile male mortality has been linked to social competition. Contrary to predictions from sexual selection theory, however, male-male competition does not result in sustained male-biased mortality. As female dolphins experience high costs of sexual coercion in addition to long and energetically expensive periods of gestation and lactation, this suggests that substantial female investment in reproduction can elevate female mortality risk and impact sex biases in lifespan.

Individual variation explains ageing patterns in a cooperatively breeding bird, the long-tailed tit (Aegithalos caudatus)

1. Alloparental care in cooperatively-breeding species may alter breeder age-specific survival and reproduction, and subsequently senescence. The helping behaviour itself might also undergo age-related change, and decisions to help in facultative cooperative breeders are likely to be affected by individual condition. 2. Helpers in long-tailed tits (Aegithalos caudatus) assist relatives after failing to raise their own brood, with offspring from helped nests being more likely to recruit into the breeding population. 3. Using data collected over 25 years, we examined the age-trajectories of survival and reproduction in adult long-tailed tits to determine how these were affected by the presence or absence of helpers, and how helper behaviour changed with age. 4. There was evidence for increased reproductive performance with breeder age, but no effect of age on the probability of survival. We found no evidence of significant senescent decline in survival or reproductive performance, although individuals accrued less inclusive fitness in their last year of life. Lifetime reproductive success was positively related to both reproductive lifespan and body mass. Within a season, breeders that were assisted by helpers enjoyed greater reproductive success through enhanced offspring recruitment in the following year. We found no evidence that age affected an individual's propensity to help, or the amount of indirect fitness accrued through helping. 5. We found a positive correlation between lifespan and multiple components of reproductive success, suggesting that individual variation in quality underpins age-related variation in fitness in this species. Helping decisions are driven by condition, and lifetime inclusive fitness of immigrants was predicted by body mass. These findings further support individual heterogeneity in quality being a major driver for fitness gains across the life course of long-tailed tits.

DNA methylation as a tool to explore ageing in wild roe deer populations

DNA methylation-based biomarkers of ageing (epigenetic clocks) promise to lead to new insights into evolutionary biology of ageing. Relatively little is known about how the natural environment affects epigenetic ageing effects in wild species. In this study, we took advantage of a unique long-term (>40 years) longitudinal monitoring of individual roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) living in two wild populations (Chizé and Trois-Fontaines, France) facing different ecological contexts, to investigate the relationship between chronological age and levels of DNA methylation (DNAm). We generated novel DNA methylation data from n = 94 blood samples, from which we extracted leucocyte DNA, using a custom methylation array (HorvathMammalMethylChip40). We present three DNA methylation-based estimators of age (DNAm or epigenetic age), which were trained in males, females, and both sexes combined. We investigated how sex differences influenced the relationship between DNAm age and chronological age using sex-specific epigenetic clocks. Our results highlight that old females may display a lower degree of biological ageing than males. Further, we identify the main sites of epigenetic alteration that have distinct ageing patterns between the two sexes. These findings open the door to promising avenues of research at the crossroads of evolutionary biology and biogerontology.

Extrinsic and intrinsic factors affecting the activity budget of alpine marmots (Marmota marmota)

Extrinsic and intrinsic factors may influence the activity budget of wild animals, resulting in a variation in the time spent in different activities among populations or individuals of the same species. In this study, we examined how extrinsic and intrinsic factors affect the behaviour of the alpine marmot (Marmota marmota), a hibernating social rodent inhabiting high-elevation prairies in the European Alps. We collected behavioural observations during scan sampling sessions on marked individuals at two study sites with different environmental characteristics. We used Bayesian hierarchical multinomial regression models to analyse the influence of both intrinsic (sex and age-dominance status) and extrinsic (environmental and climatic variables) factors on the above-ground activity budget. Marmots spent most of their time above ground foraging, and were more likely to forage when it was cloudy. Extrinsic factors such as the site, period of the season (June, July–August, and August–September), and time of the day were all related to the probability of engaging in vigilance behaviour, which reaches its peak in early morning and late afternoon and during July, the second period included in the study. Social behaviours, such as affiliative and agonistic behaviours, were associated mostly with sex and age-dominance status, and yearlings were the more affiliative individuals compared to other status. Overall, our results suggest that in alpine marmots, intrinsic factors mostly regulate agonistic and affiliative behaviours, while extrinsic factors, with the unexpected exception of temperature, affect the probabilities of engaging in all types of behavioural categories.

Agonism and grooming behaviour explain social status effects on physiology and gene regulation in rhesus macaques

Variation in social status predicts molecular, physiological and life-history outcomes across a broad range of species, including our own. Experimental studies indicate that some of these relationships persist even when the physical environment is held constant. Here, we draw on datasets from one such study-experimental manipulation of dominance rank in captive female rhesus macaques-to investigate how social status shapes the lived experience of these animals to alter gene regulation, glucocorticoid physiology and mitochondrial DNA phenotypes. We focus specifically on dominance rank-associated dimensions of the social environment, including both competitive and affiliative interactions. Our results show that simple summaries of rank-associated behavioural interactions are often better predictors of molecular and physiological outcomes than dominance rank itself. However, while measures of immune function are best explained by agonism rates, glucocorticoid-related phenotypes tend to be more closely linked to affiliative behaviour. We conclude that dominance rank serves as a useful summary for investigating social environmental effects on downstream outcomes. Nevertheless, the behavioural interactions that define an individual's daily experiences reveal the proximate drivers of social status-related differences and are especially relevant for understanding why individuals who share the same social status sometimes appear physiologically distinct. This article is part of the theme issue 'The centennial of the pecking order: current state and future prospects for the study of dominance hierarchies'.

The elephant in the family: Costs and benefits of elder siblings on younger offspring life-history trajectory in a matrilineal mammal

Many mammals grow up with siblings, and interactions between them can influence offspring phenotype and fitness. Among these interactions, sibling competition between different-age offspring should lead to reproductive and survival costs on the younger sibling, while sibling cooperation should improve younger sibling's reproductive potential and survival. However, little is known about the consequences of sibling effects on younger offspring life-history trajectory, especially in long-lived mammals. We take advantage of a large, multigenerational demographic dataset from semi-captive Asian elephants to investigate how the presence and sex of elder siblings influence the sex, survival until 5 years old, body condition, reproductive success (i.e. age at first reproduction and lifetime reproductive success) and long-term survival of subsequent offspring. We find that elder siblings have heterogeneous effects on subsequent offspring life-history traits depending on their presence, their sex and the sex of the subsequent offspring (named focal calf). Overall, the presence of an elder sibling (either sex) strongly increased focal calf long-term survival (either sex) compared to sibling absence. However, elder sisters had higher impact on the focal sibling than elder brothers. Focal females born after a female display higher long-term survival, and decreased age at first reproduction when raised together with an elder sister rather than a brother. Focal males born after a female rather than a male showed lower survival but higher body weight when both were raised together. We did not detect any sibling effects on the sex of the focal calf sex, survival until 5 years old and lifetime reproductive success. Our results highlight the general complexity of sibling effects, but broadly that elder siblings can influence the life-history trajectory of subsequent offspring. We also stress the importance of considering all life stages when evaluating sibling effects on life trajectories.

Senescence: why and where selection gradients might not decline with age

Patterns of ageing across the tree of life are much more diverse than previously thought. Yet, we still do not adequately understand how, why and where across the tree of life a particular pattern of ageing will evolve. An ability to predict ageing patterns requires a firmer understanding of how and why different ecological and evolutionary factors alter the sensitivity of fitness to age-related changes in mortality and reproduction. From this understanding, we can ask why and where selection gradients might not decline with age. Here, we begin by summarizing the recent breadth of literature that is unearthing, empirically and theoretically, the mechanisms that drive variation in patters of senescence. We focus on the relevance of two key parameters, population structure and reproductive value, as key to understanding selection gradients, and therefore senescence. We discuss how growth form, individual trade-offs, stage structure and social interactions may all facilitate differing distributions of these two key parameters than those predicted by classical theory. We argue that these four key aspects can help us understand why patterns of negligible and negative senescence can actually be explained under the same evolutionary framework as classical senescence.

Helpers compensate for age-related declines in parental care and offspring survival in a cooperatively breeding bird

Offspring from elderly parents often have lower survival due to parental senescence. In cooperatively breeding species, where offspring care is shared between breeders and helpers, the alloparental care provided by helpers is predicted to mitigate the impact of parental senescence on offspring provisioning and, subsequently, offspring survival. We test this prediction using data from a long-term study on cooperatively breeding Seychelles warblers (Acrocephalus sechellensis). We find that the nestling provisioning rate of female breeders declines with their age. Further, the total brood provisioning rate and the first-year survival probability of offspring decline progressively with age of the female breeder, but these declines are mitigated when helpers are present. This effect does not arise because individual helpers provide more care in response to the lower provisioning of older dominant females, but because older female breeders have recruited more helpers, thereby receiving more overall care for their brood. We do not find such effects for male breeders. These results indicate that alloparental care can alleviate the fitness costs of senescence for breeders, which suggests an interplay between age and cooperative breeding.

Is degree of sociality associated with reproductive senescence? A comparative analysis across birds and mammals

Our understanding on how widespread reproductive senescence is in the wild and how the onset and rate of reproductive senescence vary among species in relation to life histories and lifestyles is currently limited. More specifically, whether the species-specific degree of sociality is linked to the occurrence, onset and rate of reproductive senescence remains unknown. Here, we investigate these questions using phylogenetic comparative analyses across 36 bird and 101 mammal species encompassing a wide array of life histories, lifestyles and social traits. We found that female reproductive senescence: (i) is widespread and occurs with similar frequency (about two-thirds) in birds and mammals; (ii) occurs later in life and is slower in birds than in similar-sized mammals; (iii) occurs later in life and is slower with an increasingly slower pace of life in both vertebrate classes; and (iv) is only weakly associated, if any, with the degree of sociality in both classes after accounting for the effect of body size and pace of life. However, when removing the effect of species differences in pace of life, a higher degree of sociality was associated with later and weaker reproductive senescence in females, which suggests that the degree of sociality is either indirectly related to reproductive senescence via the pace of life or simply a direct outcome of the pace of life. This article is part of the theme issue 'Ageing and sociality: why, when and how does sociality change ageing patterns?'

Influences of climatic and social environment on variable maternal allocation among offspring in Alpine marmots

In an environment with limited resources, parents may trade-off the number of offspring produced against offspring mass. To maximize fitness under unpredictable environments, females must not only maximize mean annual reproductive success but also minimize between-year variation in reproductive success. Thus, preferred strategies of maternal allocation might be to maximize the mass of their offspring or to produce a number of offspring of variable body masses. Many social species have evolved in variable and unpredictable environments where only the social environment can be predicted. If mothers seem to alter their total reproductive allocation to offspring depending on their social environment, how the total expenditure is allocated between the different offspring is still unknown. Here, we analysed how climatic and social environments influence strategies of maternal allocation and how these strategies impact pup first-year survival in a wild population of Alpine marmots monitored between 1990 and 2016. We found that females acted as income breeders using resources immediately available for reproduction. Our results showed that the proportion of maternal mass allocated to offspring varied mainly with litter size. However, how maternal allocation is shared between pups depended on climatic and social environments. In general, mothers tended to have litters of greater average mass and small variability in favourable social environments or when resources are abundant and lighter average pup mass but high variability in unfavourable social environments or when resources are scarce. This variable allocation could correspond to dynamic bet-hedging such that mothers influence the variance of pup mass within the litter in response to poor current environmental conditions. Our analysis of first-year survival showed that females should maximize the body mass of their young whatever the conditions will be because pups of higher mass have higher survival, regardless of environmental conditions. When resources are scarce, this strategy might not be achievable for all pups so that mothers produced variable pups. In large litters, this strategy increased first-year survival. Because pup variability affects parental fitness, differential allocation between pups of the same litter could have large consequences on fitness and thus on reproductive strategies of social species.

Social determinants of health and survival in humans and other animals

The social environment, both in early life and adulthood, is one of the strongest predictors of morbidity and mortality risk in humans. Evidence from long-term studies of other social mammals indicates that this relationship is similar across many species. In addition, experimental studies show that social interactions can causally alter animal physiology, disease risk, and life span itself. These findings highlight the importance of the social environment to health and mortality as well as Darwinian fitness-outcomes of interest to social scientists and biologists alike. They thus emphasize the utility of cross-species analysis for understanding the predictors of, and mechanisms underlying, social gradients in health.

Sex differences in adult lifespan and aging rates of mortality across wild mammals

In human populations, women consistently outlive men, which suggests profound biological foundations for sex differences in survival. Quantifying whether such sex differences are also pervasive in wild mammals is a crucial challenge in both evolutionary biology and biogerontology. Here, we compile demographic data from 134 mammal populations, encompassing 101 species, to show that the female's median lifespan is on average 18.6% longer than that of conspecific males, whereas in humans the female advantage is on average 7.8%. On the contrary, we do not find any consistent sex differences in aging rates. In addition, sex differences in median adult lifespan and aging rates are both highly variable across species. Our analyses suggest that the magnitude of sex differences in mammalian mortality patterns is likely shaped by local environmental conditions in interaction with the sex-specific costs of sexual selection.

Sex-independent senescence in a cooperatively breeding mammal

Researchers studying mammals have frequently interpreted earlier or faster rates of ageing in males as resulting from polygyny and the associated higher costs of reproductive competition. Yet, few studies conducted on wild populations have compared sex-specific senescence trajectories outside of polygynous species, making it difficult to make generalized inferences on the role of reproductive competition in driving senescence, particularly when other differences between males and females might also contribute to sex-specific changes in performance across lifespan. Here, we examine age-related variation in body mass, reproductive output and survival in dominant male and female meerkats, Suricata suricatta. Meerkats are socially monogamous cooperative breeders where a single dominant pair virtually monopolizes reproduction in each group and subordinate group members help to rear offspring produced by breeders. In contrast to many polygynous societies, we find that neither the onset nor the rate of senescence in body mass or reproductive output shows clear differences between males and females. Both sexes also display similar patterns of age-related survival across lifespan, but unlike most wild vertebrates, survival senescence (increases in annual mortality with rising age) was absent in dominants of both sexes, and as a result, the fitness costs of senescence were entirely attributable to declines in reproductive output from mid- to late-life. We suggest that the potential for intrasexual competition to increase rates of senescence in females-who are hormonally masculinized and frequently aggressive-is offset by their ability to maintain longer tenures of dominance than males, and that these processes when combined lead to similar patterns of senescence in both sexes. Our results stress the need to consider the form and intensity of sexual competition as well as other sex-specific features of life history when investigating the operation of senescence in wild populations.

Primate microbiomes over time: Longitudinal answers to standing questions in microbiome research

To date, most insights into the processes shaping vertebrate gut microbiomes have emerged from studies with cross-sectional designs. While this approach has been valuable, emerging time series analyses on vertebrate gut microbiomes show that gut microbial composition can change rapidly from 1 day to the next, with consequences for host physical functioning, health, and fitness. Hence, the next frontier of microbiome research will require longitudinal perspectives. Here we argue that primatologists, with their traditional focus on tracking the lives of individual animals and familiarity with longitudinal fecal sampling, are well positioned to conduct research at the forefront of gut microbiome dynamics. We begin by reviewing some of the most important ecological processes governing microbiome change over time, and briefly summarizing statistical challenges and approaches to microbiome time series analysis. We then introduce five questions of general interest to microbiome science where we think field-based primate studies are especially well positioned to fill major gaps: (a) Do early life events shape gut microbiome composition in adulthood? (b) Do shifting social landscapes cause gut microbial change? (c) Are gut microbiome phenotypes heritable across variable environments? (d) Does the gut microbiome show signs of host aging? And (e) do gut microbiome composition and dynamics predict host health and fitness? For all of these questions, we highlight areas where primatologists are uniquely positioned to make substantial contributions. We review preliminary evidence, discuss possible study designs, and suggest future directions.

Senescence in nature: New insights from a long-term seabird study

In Focus: Tompkins, E. M., & Anderson, D. J. (2019). Sex-specific patterns of senescencein Nazca boobies linked to mating system. Journal of Animal Ecology, 88, 986-1000. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12944. Sex-specific differences in senescence and environmental impacts on senescence in both sexes remain poorly understood. Tompkins and Anderson (2019) studied senescence in survival (hereafter called actuarial senescence) and in reproduction (hereafter called reproductive senescence) in Nazca boobies using 33 years of individual-based capture-recapture data. Senescence patterns (life-history traits, ages at onset, senescence rates) differed between sexes and were affected by environmental conditions (food availability) faced by individuals during their younger ages. Patterns of sex differences in senescence may result from the mating dynamics due to the population's male-biased sex ratio.

Breeders that receive help age more slowly in a cooperatively breeding bird

Helping by group members is predicted to lead to delayed senescence by affecting the trade-off between current reproduction and future survival for dominant breeders. Here we investigate this prediction in the Seychelles warbler, Acrocephalus sechellensis, in which mainly female subordinate helpers (both co-breeders and non-breeding helpers) often help dominants raise offspring. We find that the late-life decline in survival usually observed in this species is greatly reduced in female dominants when a helper is present. Female dominants with a female helper show reduced telomere attrition, a measure that reflects biological ageing in this and other species. Finally, the probability of having female, but not male, helpers increases with dominant female age. Our results suggest that delayed senescence is a key benefit of cooperative breeding for elderly dominants and support the idea that sociality and delayed senescence are positively self-reinforcing. Such an effect may help explain why social species often have longer lifespans.

Sociality explains substantial variation in ageing across species, but less is known about this relationship within species. Here, the authors show that female dominant Seychelles warblers with helpers at the nest have higher late-life survival and lower telomere attrition and the probability of having helpers increases with age.