In vitro adhesion of human dermal fibroblasts on iron cross-linked alginate films

Low-adhesion and low-swelling hydrogel based on alginate and carbonated water to prevent temporary dilation of wound sites

Hydrogel-based wound dressings have been developed for rapid wound healing; however, their adhesive properties have not been adequately investigated. Excessive adhesion to the skin causes wound expansion and pain when hydrogels absorb exudates and swell at wound sites. Herein, we developed a low-adhesion and low-swelling hydrogel dressing using alginate, which is non-adhesive to cells and skin tissue, CaCO3, and carbonated water. The alginate/CaCO3 solution rapidly formed a hydrogel upon the addition of carbonated water, and the CO2 in the hydrogel diffused into the atmosphere, preventing acidification and obtaining a pH value suitable for wound healing. Remarkably, the skin adhesion and swelling of the hydrogel were 11.9- to 16.5-fold and 1.9-fold lower, respectively, than those of clinical low-adhesion hydrogel dressings. In vivo wound-healing tests in mice demonstrated its therapeutic efficacy, and the prepared hydrogel prevented temporary wound dilation during early healing. These results illustrate the importance of controlling skin adhesion and swelling in wound dressings and demonstrate the potential clinical applications of this wound-friendly hydrogel dressing.

Towards Ready-to-Use Iron-Crosslinked Alginate Beads as Mesenchymal Stem Cell Carriers

Micro-carriers, thanks to high surface/volume ratio, are widely studied as mesenchymal stem cell (MSCs) in vitro substrate for proliferation at clinical rate. In particular, Ca-alginate-based biomaterials (sodium alginate crosslinked with CaCl₂) are commonly investigated. However, Ca-alginate shows low bioactivity and requires functionalization, increasing labor work and costs. In contrast, films of sodium alginate crosslinked with iron chloride (Fe-alginate) have shown good bioactivity with fibroblasts, but MSCs studies are lacking. We propose a first proof-of-concept study of Fe-alginate beads supporting MSCs proliferation without functionalization. Macro- and micro-carriers were prepared (extrusion and electrospray) and we report for the first time Fe-alginate electrospraying optimization. FTIR spectra, stability with various mannuronic acids/guluronic acids (M/G) ratios and size distribution were analyzed before performing cell culture. After confirming literature results on films with human MSCs, we showed that Macro-Fe-alginate beads offered a better environment for MSCs adhesion than Ca-alginate. We concluded that Fe-alginate beads showed great potential as ready-to-use carriers.

Inhibition of mycobacteria proliferation in macrophages by low cisplatin concentration through phosphorylated p53-related apoptosis pathway

BACKGROUND

Drug resistance is a prominent problem in the treatment of tuberculosis, so it is urgent to develop new anti- tuberculosis drugs. Here, we investigated the effects and mechanisms of cisplatin (DDP) on intracellular Mycobacterium smegmatis to tap the therapeutic potential of DDP in mycobacterial infection.

RESULTS

Macrophages infected with Mycobacterium smegmatis were treated with DDP alone or combined with isoniazid or rifampicin. The results showed that the bacterial count in macrophages decreased significantly after DDP (≤ 6 μg/mL) treatment. When isoniazid or rifampicin was combined with DDP, the number of intracellular mycobacteria was also significantly lower than that of isoniazid or rifampicin alone. Apoptosis of infected cells increased after 24 h of DDP treatment, as shown by flow cytometry and transmission electron microscopy detection. Transcriptome sequencing showed that there were 1161 upregulated and 645 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the control group and DDP treatment group. A Trp53-centered protein interaction network was found based on the top 100 significant DEGs through STRING and Cytoscape software. The expression of phosphorylated p53, Bax, JAK, p38 MAPK and PI3K increased after DDP treatment, as shown by Western blot analysis. Inhibitors of JAK, PI3K or p38 MAPK inhibited the increase in cell apoptosis and the reduction in the intracellular bacterial count induced by DDP. The p53 promoter Kevetrin hydrochloride scavenges intracellular mycobacteria. If combined with DDP, Kevetrin hydrochloride could increase the effect of DDP on the elimination of intracellular mycobacteria. In conclusion, DDP at low concentrations could activate the JAK, p38 MAPK and PI3K pathways in infected macrophages, promote the phosphorylation of p53 protein, and increase the ratio of Bax to Bcl-2, leading to cell apoptosis, thus eliminating intracellular bacteria and reducing the spread of mycobacteria.

CONCLUSION

DDP may be a new host-directed therapy for tuberculosis treatment, as well as the p53 promoter Kevetrin hydrochloride.

A Review on the Recent Advancements on Therapeutic Effects of Ions in the Physiological Environments

This review focuses on the therapeutic effects of ions when released in physiological environments. Recent studies have shown that metallic ions like Ag+, Sr2+, Mg2+, Mn2+, Cu2+, Ca2+, P+5, etc., have shown promising results in drug delivery systems and regenerative medicine. These metallic ions can be loaded in nanoparticles, mesoporous bioactive glass nanoparticles (MBGNs), hydroxyapatite (HA), calcium phosphates, polymeric coatings, and salt solutions. The metallic ions can exhibit different functions in the physiological environment such as antibacterial, antiviral, anticancer, bioactive, biocompatible, and angiogenic effects. Furthermore, the metals/metalloid ions can be loaded into scaffolds to improve osteoblast proliferation, differentiation, bone development, fibroblast growth, and improved wound healing efficacy. Moreover, different ions possess different therapeutic limits. Therefore, further mechanisms need to be developed for the highly controlled and sustained release of these ions. This review paper summarizes the recent progress in the use of metallic/metalloid ions in regenerative medicine and encourages further study of ions as a solution to cure diseases.

Functional differentiation and scalable production of renal proximal tubular epithelial cells from human pluripotent stem cells in a dynamic culture system

OBJECTIVE

To provide a standardized protocol for large-scale production of proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTEC) generated from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC).

METHODS

The hPSC were expanded and differentiated into PTEC on matrix-coated alginate beads in an automated levitating fluidic platform bioLevitator. Differentiation efficacy was evaluated by immunofluorescence staining and flow cytometry, ultrastructure visualized by electron microscopy. Active reabsorption by PTEC was investigated by glucose, albumin, organic anions and cations uptake assays. Finally, the response to cisplatin-treatment was assessed to check the potential use of PTEC to model drug-induced nephrotoxicity.

RESULTS

hPSC expansion and PTEC differentiation could be performed directly on matrix-coated alginate beads in suspension bioreactors. Renal precursors arose 4 days post hPSC differentiation and PTEC after 8 days with 80% efficiency, with a 10-fold expansion from hPSC in 24 days. PTEC on beads, exhibited microvilli and clear apico-basal localization of markers. Functionality of PTECs was confirmed by uptake of glucose, albumin, organic anions and cations and expression of KIM-1 after Cisplatin treatment.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate the efficient expansion of hPSC, controlled differentiation to renal progenitors and further specification to polarized tubular epithelial cells. This is the first report employing biolevitation and matrix-coated beads in a completely defined medium for the scalable and potentially automatable production of functional human PTEC.

Three-Dimensional Modelling of Ovarian Cancer: From Cell Lines to Organoids for Discovery and Personalized Medicine

Ovarian cancer has the highest mortality of all of the gynecological malignancies. There are several distinct histotypes of this malignancy characterized by specific molecular events and clinical behavior. These histotypes have differing responses to platinum-based drugs that have been the mainstay of therapy for ovarian cancer for decades. For histotypes that initially respond to a chemotherapeutic regime of carboplatin and paclitaxel such as high-grade serous ovarian cancer, the development of chemoresistance is common and underpins incurable disease. Recent discoveries have led to the clinical use of PARP (poly ADP ribose polymerase) inhibitors for ovarian cancers defective in homologous recombination repair, as well as the anti-angiogenic bevacizumab. While predictive molecular testing involving identification of a genomic scar and/or the presence of germline or somatic BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation are in clinical use to inform the likely success of a PARP inhibitor, no similar tests are available to identify women likely to respond to bevacizumab. Functional tests to predict patient response to any drug are, in fact, essentially absent from clinical care. New drugs are needed to treat ovarian cancer. In this review, we discuss applications to address the currently unmet need of developing physiologically relevant in vitro and ex vivo models of ovarian cancer for fundamental discovery science, and personalized medicine approaches. Traditional two-dimensional (2D) in vitro cell culture of ovarian cancer lacks critical cell-to-cell interactions afforded by culture in three-dimensions. Additionally, modelling interactions with the tumor microenvironment, including the surface of organs in the peritoneal cavity that support metastatic growth of ovarian cancer, will improve the power of these models. Being able to reliably grow primary tumoroid cultures of ovarian cancer will improve the ability to recapitulate tumor heterogeneity. Three-dimensional (3D) modelling systems, from cell lines to organoid or tumoroid cultures, represent enhanced starting points from which improved translational outcomes for women with ovarian cancer will emerge.

Magnetic Properties of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Do Not Essentially Contribute to Ferrogel Biocompatibility

Two series of composite polyacrylamide (PAAm) gels with embedded superparamagnetic Fe₂O₃ or diamagnetic Al₂O₃ nanoparticles were synthesized, aiming to study the direct contribution of the magnetic interactions to the ferrogel biocompatibility. The proliferative activity was estimated for the case of human dermal fibroblast culture grown onto the surfaces of these types of substrates. Spherical non-agglomerated nanoparticles (NPs) of 20-40 nm in diameter were prepared by laser target evaporation (LTE) electrophysical technique. The concentration of the NPs in gel was fixed at 0.0, 0.3, 0.6, or 1.2 wt.%. Mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties of composite gels were characterized by the dependence of Young's modulus, electrical potential, magnetization measurements on the content of embedded NPs. The fibroblast monolayer density grown onto the surface of composite substrates was considered as an indicator of the material biocompatibility after 96 h of incubation. Regardless of the superparamagnetic or diamagnetic nature of nanoparticles, the increase in their concentration in the PAAm composite provided a parallel increase in the cell culture proliferation when grown onto the surface of composite substrates. The effects of cell interaction with the nanostructured surface of composites are discussed in order to explain the results.

Fabrication and Characterization of Polysaccharide Metallohydrogel Obtained from Succinoglycan and Trivalent Chromium

In the present study, a polysaccharide metallohydrogel was successfully fabricated using succinoglycan and trivalent chromium and was verified via Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry analysis, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), field emission scanning electron microscopy, and rheological measurements. Thermal behavior analysis via TGA indicated that the final mass loss of pure succinoglycan was 87.8% although it was reduced to 65.8% by forming a hydrogel with trivalent chromium cations. Moreover, succinoglycan-based metallohydrogels exhibited improved mechanical properties based on the added concentration of Cr³⁺ and displayed a 10 times higher compressive stress and enhanced storage modulus (G′) of 230% at the same strain. In addition, the pore size of the obtained SCx could be adjusted by changing the concentration of Cr³⁺. Gelation can also be adjusted based on the initial pH of the metallohydrogel formulation. This was attributed to crosslinking between chromium trivalent ions and hydroxyl/carboxyl groups of succinoglycan, each of which exhibits a specific pH-dependent behavior in aqueous solutions. It could be used as a soft sensor to detect Cr³⁺ in certain biological systems, or as a soft matrix for bioseparation that allows control of pore size and mechanical strength by tuning the Cr³⁺ concentration.

The adaptation of lipid profile of human fibroblasts to alginate 2D films and 3D printed scaffolds

BACKGROUND

The investigation of the interactions between cells and active materials is pivotal in the emerging 3D printing-biomaterial application fields. Here, lipidomics has been used to explore the early impact of alginate (ALG) hydrogel architecture (2D films or 3D printed scaffolds) and the type of gelling agent (CaCl₂ or FeCl₃) on the lipid profile of human fibroblasts.

METHODS

2D and 3D ALG scaffolds were prepared and characterized in terms of water content, swelling, mechanical resistance and morphology before human fibroblast seeding (8 days). Using a liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole-tandem mass spectrometry approach, selected ceramides (CER), lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), lysophosphatidic acids (LPA) and free fatty acids (FFA) were analyzed.

RESULTS

The results showed a clear alteration in the CER expression profile depending of both the geometry and the gelling agent used to prepare the hydrogels. As for LPCs, the main parameter affecting their distribution is the scaffold architecture with a significant decrease in the relative expression levels of the species with higher chain length (C20 to C22) for 3D scaffolds compared to 2D films. In the case of FFAs and LPAs only slight differences were observed as a function of scaffold geometry or gelling agent.

CONCLUSIONS

Variations in the cell membrane lipid profile were observed for 3D cell cultures compared to 2D and these data are consistent with activation processes occurring through the mutual interactions between fibroblasts and ALG support. These unknown physiologically relevant changes add insights into the discussion about the relationship between biomaterial and the variations of cell biological functions.

Multivalent Ions as Reactive Crosslinkers for Biopolymers-A Review

Many biopolymers exhibit a strong complexing ability for multivalent ions. Often such ions form ionic bridges between the polymer chains. This leads to the formation of ionic cross linked networks and supermolecular structures, thus promoting the modification of the behavior of solid and gel polymer networks. Sorption of biopolymers on fiber surfaces and interfaces increases substantially in the case of multivalent ions, e.g., calcium being available for ionic crosslinking. Through controlled adsorption and ionic crosslinking surface modification of textile fibers with biopolymers can be achieved, thus altering the characteristics at the interface between fiber and surrounding matrices. A brief introduction on the differences deriving from the biopolymers, as their interaction with other compounds, is given. Functional models are presented and specified by several examples from previous and recent studies. The relevance of ionic crosslinks in biopolymers is discussed by means of selected examples of wider use.

Polymer- and Hybrid-Based Biomaterials for Interstitial, Connective, Vascular, Nerve, Visceral and Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering

In this review, materials based on polymers and hybrids possessing both organic and inorganic contents for repairing or facilitating cell growth in tissue engineering are discussed. Pure polymer based biomaterials are predominantly used to target soft tissues. Stipulated by possibilities of tuning the composition and concentration of their inorganic content, hybrid materials allow to mimic properties of various types of harder tissues. That leads to the concept of "one-matches-all" referring to materials possessing the same polymeric base, but different inorganic content to enable tissue growth and repair, proliferation of cells, and the formation of the ECM (extra cellular matrix). Furthermore, adding drug delivery carriers to coatings and scaffolds designed with such materials brings additional functionality by encapsulating active molecules, antibacterial agents, and growth factors. We discuss here materials and methods of their assembly from a general perspective together with their applications in various tissue engineering sub-areas: interstitial, connective, vascular, nervous, visceral and musculoskeletal tissues. The overall aims of this review are two-fold: (a) to describe the needs and opportunities in the field of bio-medicine, which should be useful for material scientists, and (b) to present capabilities and resources available in the area of materials, which should be of interest for biologists and medical doctors.

Creation of cell micropatterns using a newly developed gel micromachining technique

Creation of cell micropatterns comprising heterogeneous cell populations is an important technique for tissue engineering, medical transplantation, drug discovery, and regenerative medicine. This paper presents a novel gel patterning technique similar to general micromachining for creating cell micropatterns using alginate gel to inhibit cell adhesion. The alginate thin-film micropattern was formed on a glass plate by photolithography and wet etching. Cell micropatterns were subsequently created along the alginate micropattern on the glass plate. This technique permits the creation of cell micropatterns with arbitrary geometry because hydrogel materials promoting or inhibiting cell adhesion can be patterned precisely. Moreover, this technique permits processing of the culture surface during cultivation because none of the materials used such as hydrogels and hydrogel-etching solutions exhibit cytotoxicity. A cell micropattern comprising different cell types was successfully created using the presented technique. This technique will be conducive to further improvement of the fabrication of artificial tissues formed by heterogeneous cells.

Behavior of a Spontaneously Arising Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cell Line Cultivated on Thin Alginate Film

Purpose:

A cell line spontaneously derived from human retinal pigment epithelium (hRPE) was cultured on alginate film gelatinized with different concentrations of neurobasal cell culture medium (NCCM) to assess its growth and morphological behavior on this naturally occurring polysaccharide.

Methods:

Neonatal human globes were used to isolate hRPE cells. They were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle’s-medium-and-Ham’s-F12-medium-(DMEM/F12) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Cultures were continuously studied using phase contrast microscopy. After the nineth passage, cells were characterized through immunocytochemical analysis for Oct4, Chx10, and Pax6 and Ki67 markers. In each well of a 6-well microplate, 1 and 2% weight/volume (w/v) alginate in deionized water was added and gelatinized using 1× and 10× NCCM. hRPE cells were cultured at a density of 2 × 105 cells/well in alginate-coated microplates. After 5 days, hRPE colonies were harvested and re-plated on polystyrene substrates. Morphology and growth of hRPE cultures were determined during the next 2 weeks.

Results:

The first few passages of the cultures were purely hRPE cells that revealed typical morphological features of the pigmented epithelium. They made spaces, devoid of cells, between hRPE cell monolayer and fill in the unoccupied spaces. They grew faster than native RPE cells and rapidly overgrew. Immunocytochemical test revealed that the founded cells expressed Chx10, Pax6, Ki67 and Oct4. The hRPE cells survived unlimitedly on alginate film and formed giant adjoining colonies. After re-plating, hRPE colonies adhered quickly on polystyrene and displayed native hRPE morphological features.

Conclusion:

Alginate film can support the survival and growth of hRPE cells and induce the cells to re-organize in tissue-like structures.

Exceptionally tough and notch-insensitive magnetic hydrogels

Most existing magnetic hydrogels are weak and brittle. The development of strong and tough magnetic hydrogels would extend their applications into uncultivated areas, such as in actuators for soft machines and guided catheters for magnetic navigation systems, which is still a big challenge. Here a facile and versatile approach to fabricating highly stretchable, exceptionally tough and notch-insensitive magnetic hydrogels, Fe(3)O(4)@Fe-alginate/polyacrylamide (PAAm), is developed, by dispersing alginate-coated Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles into the interpenetrating polymer networks of alginate and PAAm, with hybrid physical and chemical crosslinks. A cantilever bending beam actuator as well as a proof-of-concept magnetically guided hydrogel catheter is demonstrated. The method proposed in this work can be integrated into other strong and tough magnetic hydrogels for the development of novel hydrogel nanocomposites with both desirable functionality and superior mechanical properties.

Novel therapeutic core-shell hydrogel scaffolds with sequential delivery of cobalt and bone morphogenetic protein-2 for synergistic bone regeneration

Enabling early angiogenesis is a crucial issue in the success of bone tissue engineering. Designing scaffolds with therapeutic potential to stimulate angiogenesis as well as osteogenesis is thus considered a promising strategy. Here, we propose a novel scaffold designed to deliver angiogenic and osteogenic factors in a sequential manner to synergize the bone regeneration event. Hydrogel fibrous scaffolds comprised of a collagen-based core and an alginate-based shell were constructed. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) was loaded in the core, while the shell incorporated Co ions, enabled by the alginate crosslinking in CoCl2/CaCl2 solution. The incorporation of Co ions was tunable by altering the concentration of Co ions in the crosslinking solution. The incorporated Co ions, that are known to play a role in angiogenesis, were released rapidly within a week, while the BMP2, acting as an osteogenic factor, was released in a highly sustainable manner over several weeks to months. The release of Co ions significantly up-regulated the in vitro angiogenic properties of cells, including the expression of angiogenic genes (CD31, VEGF, and HIF-1α), secretion of VEGF, and the formation of tubule-like networks. However, BMP2 did not activate the angiogenic processes. Osteogenesis was also significantly enhanced by the release of Co ions as well as BMP2, characterized by higher expression of osteogenic genes (OPN, ALP, BSP, and OCN), and OCN protein secretion. An in vivo study on the designed scaffolds implanted in rat calvarium defect demonstrated significantly enhanced bone formation, evidenced by new bone volume and bone density, due to the release of BMP2 and Co ions. This is the first study using Co ions as an angiogenic element together with the osteogenic factor BMP2 within scaffolds, and the results demonstrated the possible synergistic role of Co ions with BMP2 in the bone regeneration process, suggesting a novel potential therapeutic scaffold system.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first report that utilizes Co ion as a pro-angiogenic factor in concert with osteogenic factor BMP-2 in the fine-tuned core-shell hydrogel fiber scaffolds, and ultimately achieves osteo/angiogenesis of MSCs and bone regeneration through the sequential delivery of both biofactors. This novel approach facilitates a new class of therapeutic scaffolds, aiming at successful bone regeneration with the help of angiogenesis.

Appressorium-mediated penetration of Magnaporthe oryzae and Colletotrichum orbiculare into surface-cross-linked agar media

Many phytopathogenic fungi form appressoria on some artificial substances. However, it is difficult to induce appressorium-mediated penetration into artificial substances. In the present study, novel artificial agar media were developed to investigate the in vitro penetration process of phytopathogenic fungi. The media contained sodium carboxymethyl cellulose or sodium alginate, and the surfaces were subjected to ionic cross-linking using trivalent metal ions. The hemibiotrophic phytopathogenic fungi, rice blast fungus and cucurbit anthracnose fungus, formed appressoria and penetrated into the surface cross-linked artificial agar media from the base of appressoria. These artificial media appeared to induce fungal infection behaviour that occurred on host plants.

Light-responsive iron(III)-polysaccharide coordination hydrogels for controlled delivery

Visible-light responsive gels were prepared from two plant-origin polyuronic acids (PUAs), alginate and pectate, coordinated to Fe(III) ions. Comparative quantitative studies of the photochemistry of these systems revealed unexpected differences in the photoreactivity of the materials, depending on the polysaccharide and its composition. The roles that different functional groups play on the photochemistry of these biomolecules were also examined. Mannuronic-rich alginates were more photoreactive than guluronic acid-rich alginate and than pectate. The microstructure of alginates with different mannuronate-to-guluronate ratios changed with polysaccharide composition. This influenced the gel morphology and the photoreactivity. Coordination hydrogel beads were prepared from both Fe-alginate and Fe-pectate. The beads were stable carriers of molecules as diverse as the dye Congo Red, the vitamin folic acid, and the antibiotic chloramphenicol. The photoreactivity of the hydrogel beads mirrored the photoreactivity of the polysaccharides in solution, where beads prepared with alginate released their cargo faster than beads prepared with pectate. These results indicate important structure-function relationships in these systems and create guidelines for the design of biocompatible polysaccharide-based materials where photoreactivity and controlled release can be tuned on the basis of the type of polysaccharide used and the metal coordination environment.

Metal cation cross-linked nanocellulose hydrogels as tissue engineering substrates

The use of cellulose materials for biomedical applications is attractive due to their low cost, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Specific processing of cellulose to yield nanofibrils further improves mechanical properties and suitability as a tissue engineering substrate due to the similarity to the fibrous structure, porosity, and size-scale of the native extracellular matrix. In order to generate the substrate, nanocellulose hydrogels were fabricated from carboxylated cellulose nanofibrils via hydrogelation using metal salts. Hydrogels cross-linked with Ca(2+) and Fe(3+) were investigated as tissue culture substrates for C3H10T1/2 fibroblast cells. Control substrates as well as those with physically adsorbed and covalently attached fibronectin protein were evaluated with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Significantly more cells were attached to surfaces modified with protein, with the highest number of cells adhered to the calcium cross-linked hydrogels with covalently attached protein.

Surface characteristics determining the cell compatibility of ionically cross-linked alginate gels

In this study we investigated differences in the characteristics determining the suitability of five types of ion (Fe(3+), Al(3+), Ca(2+), Ba(2+) and Sr(2+))-cross-linked alginate films as culture substrates for cells. Human dermal fibroblasts were cultured on each alginate film to examine the cell affinity of the alginates. Since cell behavior on the surface of a material is dependent on the proteins adsorbed to it, we investigated the protein adsorption ability and surface features (wettability, morphology and charge) related to the protein adsorption abilities of alginate films. We observed that ferric, aluminum and barium ion-cross-linked alginate films supported better cell growth and adsorbed higher amounts of serum proteins than other types. Surface wettability analysis demonstrated that ferric and aluminum ion-cross-linked alginates had moderate hydrophilic surfaces, while other types showed highly hydrophilic surfaces. The roughness was exhibited only on barium ion-cross-linked alginate surface. Surface charge measurements revealed that alginate films had negatively charged surfaces, and showed little difference among the five types of gel. These results indicate that the critical factors of ionically cross-linked alginate films determining the protein adsorption ability required for their cell compatibility may be surface wettability and morphology.

Effects of composition of iron-cross-linked alginate hydrogels for cultivation of human dermal fibroblasts

We investigated the suitability of ferric-ion-cross-linked alginates (Fe-alginate) with various proportions of L-guluronic acid (G) and D-mannuronic acid (M) residues as a culture substrate for human dermal fibroblasts. High-G and high-M Fe-alginate gels showed comparable efficacy in promoting initial cell adhesion and similar protein adsorption capacities, but superior cell proliferation was observed on high-G than on high-M Fe-alginate as culture time progressed. During immersion in culture medium, high-G Fe-alginate showed little change in gel properties in terms of swelling and polymer content, but the properties of high-M Fe-alginate gel were altered due to loss of ion cross-linking. However, the degree of cell proliferation on high-M Fe-alginate gel was improved after it had been stabilized by immersion in culture medium until no further changes occurred. These results suggest that the mode of cross-linkage between ferric ions and alginate differs depending on alginate composition and that the major factor giving rise to differences in cell growth on the two types of Fe-alginate films is gel stability during culture, rather than swelling of the original gel, polymer content, or protein adsorption ability. Our findings may be useful for extending the application of Fe-alginate to diverse biomedical fields.

Photodegradable iron(III) cross-linked alginate gels

Biocompatible photoresponsive materials are of interest for targeted drug delivery, tissue engineering, 2D and 3D protein patterning, and other biomedical applications. We prepared light degradable hydrogels using a natural alginate polysaccharide cross-linked with iron(III) cations. The "hard" iron(III) cations used to cross-link the alginate hydrogel were found to undergo facile photoreduction to "soft" iron(II) cations in the presence of millimolar concentrations of sodium lactate. The "soft" iron(II) cations have a decreased ability to cross-link the alginate which results in dissolution of the hydrogel and the formation of a homogeneous solution. The photodegradation is done using long wave UV or visible light at neutral pH. The very mild conditions required for the photodegradation and the high rate at which it occurs suggest applications for iron(III) cross-linked alginate hydrogels as light-controlled biocompatible scaffolds.

Metallic ions as therapeutic agents in tissue engineering scaffolds: an overview of their biological applications and strategies for new developments

This article provides an overview on the application of metallic ions in the fields of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering, focusing on their therapeutic applications and the need to design strategies for controlling the release of loaded ions from biomaterial scaffolds. A detailed summary of relevant metallic ions with potential use in tissue engineering approaches is presented. Remaining challenges in the field and directions for future research efforts with focus on the key variables needed to be taken into account when considering the controlled release of metallic ions in tissue engineering therapeutics are also highlighted.