Vector-Borne Pathogens in Stray Dogs in Northeastern Turkey

Molecular detection of Babesia and Theileria species/genotypes in sheep and ixodid ticks in Erzurum, Northeastern Turkey: First report of Babesia canis in sheep

Piroplasmosis is a tick-borne protozoan disease caused by Babesia and Theileria species in ruminants. This study sought to determine the presence and prevalence of the agents causing piroplasmosis among sheep in Erzurum province, Turkey. It also sought to identify the tick species infesting the sheep and investigate the possible role of the ticks in the transmission of piroplasmosis. A total of 1621 blood samples and 1696 ixodid ticks from infested sheep were collected. Each blood sample and 115 tick pools were subjected to PCR assay. A total of 307 blood samples were found to be positive for Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. according to molecular analysis. The sequence analysis was revealed the presence of B. ovis (0.4%), B. crassa (0.4%), B. canis (0.4%), T. ovis (69.3%), Theileria sp. (26.6%), and Theileria sp. OT3 (2.9%) in 244 samples. The collected ticks were identified as D. marginatus (62.5%), Hae. parva (36.2%), Hae. punctata (1.1%), Rh. turanicus (0.1%), and H. marginatum (0.1%). The molecular analysis of the adult tick samples revealed T. ovis and T. annulata positivity in the D. marginatus pools, B. crassa and T. ovis positivity in the Hae. parva pools, and T. ovis positivity in the Hae. punctata pools. These results provide up-to-date data concerning tick-borne protozoan diseases of sheep and tick species infesting sheep in the region. The sheep breeding industry is an important livelihood for the region so it is essential to perform repeated studies on these pathogens in order to prevent disruptions to animal husbandry.

Advanced approaches for the diagnosis and chemoprevention of canine vector-borne pathogens and parasites-Implications for the Asia-Pacific region and beyond

Vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) of canines are a diverse range of infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa and multicellular parasites, that are pernicious and potentially lethal to their hosts. Dogs across the globe are afflicted by canine VBPs, but the range of different ectoparasites and the VBPs that they transmit predominate in tropical regions. Countries within the Asia-Pacific have had limited prior research dedicated to exploring the epidemiology of canine VBPs, whilst the few studies that have been conducted show VBP prevalence to be high, with significant impacts on dog health. Moreover, such impacts are not restricted to dogs, as some canine VBPs are zoonotic. We reviewed the status of canine VBPs in the Asia-Pacific, with particular focus on nations in the tropics, whilst also investigating the history of VBP diagnosis and examining recent progress in the field, including advanced molecular methods, such as next-generation sequencing (NGS). These tools are rapidly changing the way parasites are detected and discovered, demonstrating a sensitivity equal to, or exceeding that of, conventional molecular diagnostics. We also provide a background to the armoury of chemopreventive products available for protecting dogs from VBP. Here, field-based research within high VBP pressure environments has underscored the importance of ectoparasiticide mode of action on their overall efficacy. The future of canine VBP diagnosis and prevention at a global level is also explored, highlighting how evolving portable sequencing technologies may permit diagnosis at point-of-care, whilst further research into chemopreventives will be essential if VBP transmission is to be effectively controlled.

What Has Happened to Heartworm Disease in Europe in the Last 10 Years?

Heartworm disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis is a vector-borne disease that affects canids and felids, both domestic and wild, throughout the world. It is a chronic disease which causes vascular damage in pulmonary arteries, and in advanced stages, the presence of pulmonary hypertension and right-sided congestive heart failure can be evidenced. Moreover, pulmonary thromboembolism is caused by the death of the worms, which can be lethal for the infected animal. Furthermore, it is the causative agent of human pulmonary dirofilariosis, being a zoonotic disease. The aim of this review was to update the current epidemiological situation of heartworm in Europe in dogs, cats, wild animals, and vectors insects, and to analyse the factors that may have contributed to the continuous spread of the disease in the last decade (2012–2021). In Europe, the disease has extended to eastern countries, being currently endemic in countries where previously only isolated or imported cases were reported. Furthermore, its prevalence has continued to increase in southern countries, traditionally endemic. This distribution trends and changes are influenced by several factors which are discussed in this review, such as the climate changes, presence of vectors in new areas, the appearance of new competent vector species in the continent, increased movement of pets that travelled to or originated from endemic countries, the urbanisation of rural areas leading to the formation of so-called “heat islands”, or the creation of extensive areas of irrigated crops. The continuous expansion of D. immitis must be monitored, and measures adapted to the situation of each country must be carried out for adequate control.

Distribution of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Domestic Animals and Their Ticks in the Countries of the Mediterranean Basin between 2000 and 2021: A Systematic Review

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) include a wide range of bacteria, parasites and viruses that cause a large spectrum of animal, human and zoonotic tick-borne diseases (TBDs). The object of this review was to establish an inventory and an analysis of TBPs found in domestic animals in the countries of the Mediterranean Basin. This geographic area occupies a central position between several continents and is an area of movement for animals, humans and pathogens of interest and their vectors, which is important in terms of animal and human health. In this systematic review, we included a total of 271 publications produced between 2000–2021 concerning TBPs in domestic animals. Among this literature, we found a total of 90 pathogen species (known as TBPs) reported in the 20 countries of the area; these were detected in tick species from domestic animals and were also directly detected in domestic animals. In all, 31 tick species were recorded and 12 domestic animal species, the latter comprising nine livestock and three pet species. More than 50% of the publications were from Western Europe. Island data were extracted and assessed, as islands of the Mediterranean Basin were represented in 16% of the publications and 77.8% of the TBPs reported. Our results show the importance of islands in the monitoring of TBPs, despite the low percentage of publications.

Van İlindeki Sokak Köpeklerinde Babesia Türlerinin Polimeraz Zincir Reaksiyonu Yöntemi İle Araştırılması

Amaç: Köpek babesiosisi Babesia spp.’ nin neden olduğu hemolitik anemi, splenomegali, trombositopeni ve ateşe neden olabilen kene kaynaklı bir protozoal hastalıktır. Türkiye’de yapılan moleküler çalışmalar soncunda B. canis, B. gibsoni, B. vogeli, B. rossi ve B. vulpes türlerinin varlığı ortaya konulmuştur. Yapılan literatür taramalarına göre Van ilinde yaşayan köpeklerde Babesia türlerini ortaya koyan herhangi bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. Bu çalışma, Van ilindeki köpeklerde babesiosisin varlığı ve yaygınlığının Polimeraz Zincir Reaksiyonu (PZR) tekniği ile araştırılması amacıyla yapılmıştır. Yöntem: Rastgele seçilen toplam 100 asemptomatik köpeğin vena cephalica antebrachii’lerinden EDTA’lı tüplere kan örnekleri alınmıştır. Alınan örneklerden elde edilen DNA’lar, Babesia spp.’ nin varlığı yönünden 18S ribozomal RNA geninin amplifiye edildiği PZR yöntemi ile araştırılmıştır. Bulgular: Muayene edilen 100 köpeğin PZR sonuçlarına göre hiçbirinde Babesia spp. DNA’sına rastlanmamıştır. Sonuç: Bu çalışma ile Van yöresi sokak köpeklerinde ilk kez Babesia spp. türleri moleküler olarak araştırılmıştır.

A Molecular survey of Hepatozoon canis in dogs in the Siirt province of Turkey

This study aimed to determine Hepatozoon canis prevalence in dogs in the Siirt province of Turkey by the molecular method. The animal material of the study consisted of a total of 75 dogs that appeared clinically healthy. Two ml of blood sample were taken from the vena cephalica antebrachii. Then, DNA extraction was performed. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to amplify the 666 bp 18S rRNA gene region of Hepatozoon canis. Two positive PCR products were purified and sequenced. As a result of Nested-PCR, H. canis specific bands in 666 bp size were obtained in 7 (9.33%) out of 75 dogs. The result of sequence analysis, the nucleotide sequence was registered in the NCBI GenBank database with accession numbers OL467380.1-OL467538.1. Hepatozoon canis registered in GenBank of sequence OL467380.1 was found to be similar with other H. canis strains of registration numbers MW684292.1 with 99.69% and MH615006.1-MK091085.1-MF797806.1 with 99.53% rates; and the sequence with registration number OL467538.1 was found to be similar to the series MW684291.1 with 99.09% and MH615006.1-MK091085.1-KX 818220.1 with 99.08% rates by BLAST analysis. Hepatozoon canis prevalence of dogs in the Siirt province was determined as a result of this study. It is of great importance to take preventive measures, especially to fight ticks with appropriate acaricides, since there is no vaccine to prevent the disease.

Seroprevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. and molecular detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma platys in stray dogs in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Stray dogs may be highly exposed to vector-borne pathogens (VBPs), including zoonotic agents, and therefore may pose a high risk of spreading infections to other animals and humans. Among the Anaplasmataceae, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, A. platys and Ehrlichia canis are commonly identified species in dogs in Europe; however, information on the occurrence of these pathogens in canine populations from Bosnia and Herzegovina (B&H) is still lacking. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. in stray dogs in the Sarajevo region of B&H and to identify A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, E. canis and E. ewingii by molecular techniques. A total of 903 blood samples of stray dogs were screened by SNAP 4Dx Plus Test for the presence of antibodies against A. phagocytophilum/A. platys and E. canis/E. ewingii. Real-time PCR assays were performed for the detection of Anaplasmataceae, A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, E. canis and E. ewingii in seropositive dogs. Antibodies to A. phagocytophilum/A. platys and/or E. canis/E. ewingii were detected in 187 (20.7%) samples. Seroprevalence was highest for A. phagocytophilum/A. platys (184/903, 20.4%). Two dogs had antibodies to E. canis/E. ewingii, while one dog was found to have antibodies to A. phagocytophilum/A. platys and to E. canis/E. ewingii. Forty-eight (25.7%) of the 187 seropositive dogs examined by Real-time PCR were positive for Anaplasmataceae. A. phagocytophilum was detected in 45 (24%) samples, while one sample was positive for A. phagocytophilum and A. platys. Two samples positive for Anaplasmataceae tested negative in the species-specific PCRs. E. canis or E. ewingii could not be detected in any of the Ehrlichia-seropositive dogs. These findings highlight the need for dog health monitoring, improving the health and welfare of stray dog population, and establishment of effective surveillance systems to combat VBDs.

Characterization of the complete mitochondrial genomes of two Ixodes ticks, I. nipponensis and Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) sp

In this study, the authors sequenced and characterized the complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of two hard ticks of the genus Ixodes, I. nipponensis and Ixodes (Pholeoixodes) sp., which were 14 505 and 14 543 bp in length, respectively. Their mt genomes encoded 37 genes, including 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes and two ribosomal RNA genes, and have only one non-coding region. The gene order in their mt genomes was the same as that of other Ixodes spp. mt genomes. The average sequence identity, combined nucleotide diversity, non-synonymous/synonymous substitutions ratio analyses consistently demonstrated that cox1, rrnS, cox2, cox3 and cytb were the most conserved and atp8, nad6 and nad2 were the most variable genes across Ixodes mitogenomes. Phylogeny of the present Ixodes spp., and other selected hard tick species, based on concatenated amino acid sequences of PCGs, confirmed their position within the genus Ixodes and sub-family Ixodinae. The novel mt markers described herein will be useful for further studies of the population genetics, molecular epidemiology and systematics of hard ticks.

Haematological and biochemical abnormalities in hunting dogs infected with Acanthocheilonema reconditum, associated risk factors, and a European overview

Acanthocheilonema reconditum is a filarial parasite transmitted by arthropods (fleas, lice, and ticks) that infect dogs. There is minimal published data available to date on potential haematological and biochemical changes associated with this parasitic infection. Study aims were (i) provide an overview of A. reconditum in Europe, (ii) define A. reconditum prevalence and risk factors in a specific dog population (hunting) from southern Italy, and (iii) assess the frequency of haemato-biochemical abnormalities associated with infection. Blood samples collected from 3020 dogs were tested by a modified Knott's technique to count and identify microfilariae. Eighty-four dogs were infected by A. reconditum (2.78%; 95% CI 2.19-3.37%). Microfilariae ranged from 1 to 212/ml. Based on clinical examination, all but six dogs with non-specific symptoms were healthy. Haematological abnormalities included leucocytosis (n = 15), with eosinophilia (n = 14) and monocytosis (n = 13). Serum biochemical abnormalities included increased total serum proteins (n = 19), albumins (n = 7), total globulins (n = 14), ALT (n = 1), and ALP (n = 1); one dog was hypoalbuminemic, and BUN was mildly increased in 2 dogs. Risk factors included the province origin (Napoli, OR=5.4, 95%CI: 2.1-14.0; Caserta, OR=5.1, 95%CI: 2.5-10.6), hunting wild mammals (OR=2.8, 95% 95%CI: 1.6-4.8), and ectoparasite infestation (OR=1.9, 95%CI: 1.1-3.1). There was a negative correlation between microfilaraemic load and decreased albumin level (-0.37; p=0.021). Our results showed that A. reconditum circulates within the hunting dog population of southern Italy, with seemingly low pathogenic potential.

Potential Mosquito Vectors of Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaira repens (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) in Aras Valley, Turkey

Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy, 1856) and Dirofilaria repens (Railliet & Henry, 1911) are mosquito-borne filarial nematodes that primarily affect dogs, causing heartworm disease and subcutaneous dirofilariosis. The canine heartworm is reported in different provinces in Turkey. However, studies about the transmitting mosquito species are limited. Hence, this study aimed to investigate potential vectors of D. immitis and D. repens in Aras Valley, Turkey. In total, 17,995 female mosquitoes were collected from eight villages during three mosquito seasons (2012-2014) in Aras Valley, located in north-eastern Turkey. A total of 1,054 DNA pools (527 abdomen and 527 head-thorax) were tested with Dirofilaria primers by multiplex-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Aedes caspius was the most abundant species in collection sites with 90%; this was followed by Culex theileri Theobald, 1903 (Diptera: Culicidae) (7.31%), Anopheles maculipennis Meigen 1818 (Diptera: Culicidae) (1.28%), Culex pipiens Linnaeus, 1758 (Diptera: Culicidae) (0.43%), (Anopheles) hyrcanus (Pallas, 1771) (Diptera: Culicidae) (0.37%), Aedes vexans (Meigen, 1830) (Diptera: Culicidae) (0.25%), and Culiseta annulata Schrank, 1776 (Diptera:Culicidae) (0.02%). Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens were detected in mosquito pools from five villages. The total Dirofilaria spp. estimated infection rate was 1.33%. The highest estimated infection rate was found in Ae. vexans (6.66%) and the lowest was in Ae. caspius (1.26%). The results show that An. maculipennis sl, Ae. caspius, Ae. vexans, Cx. theileri and Cx. pipiens are potential vectors of D. immitis and D. repens with DNA in head-thorax pools; An. hyrcanus is also a likely vector, but Dirofilaria DNA was found only in abdomen pools for the study area. This study revealed new potential vector species for D. immitis. Mosquitoes with natural infections of D. repens were reported for the first time in Turkey.

Primary Tick-Borne Protozoan and Rickettsial Infections of Animals in Turkey

Parasitic diseases caused by ticks constitute a barrier on global animal production, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions. As a country with a temperate and subtropical climate, Turkey has topography, climate, and pasture resources, and these resources are suitable for animal breeding and parasite–host–vector relationships throughout the country. This geography restricts the regulations on animal movements in the southeastern and eastern Anatolia because of the close contact with the neighboring states. The livestock resources in Turkey are regulated by strong foundations. Almost 30% of the agriculture-based gross domestic product is provided by the livestock industry. Parasitic diseases arising from ticks are endemic in Turkey, and they have a significant impact on the economy and animal health, particularly for ruminants. The main and economically-important tick-borne diseases (TBDs) suffered by animals include theileriosis, babesiosis, hepatozoonosis, and cytauxzoonosis caused by protozoa, and anaplasmosis and ehrlichiosis caused by rickettsiae. The most common hemoprotozoan and rickettsial agents are Anaplasma marginale, Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys, Babesia bigemina, Babesia caballi, Babesia ovis, Cytauxzoon felis, Ehrlichia canis, Hepatozoon canis, Theileria annulata and Theileria equi. These diseases are basically controlled through treatment and measures for tick control. Vaccination can be performed for only tropical theileriosis caused in Turkey. We reviewed the studies published in domestic and international journals to gather epidemiological data regarding the major TBDs suffered by animals in Turkey.

First Molecular Detection of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Dogs from Kyrgyzstan

BACKGROUND

Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens are the causative agents of cardiopulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariosis, respectively. This neglected disease mainly seen in dogs, cats and wild carnivores is re-emerging recent years. No study was conducted on dirofilariosis in dogs in Kyrgyzstan.

PURPOSE

The goal of this study was to investigate Dirofilaria species using PCR and sequencing in dogs from Kyrgyzstan.

METHOD

Dirofilaria spp. infection in dogs was screened via convential PCR and sequencing in 337 dogs from Kyrgyzstan.

RESULT

The overall prevalence of Dirofilaria spp. was 0.59% (2/337): DNA of D. immitis was detected in one sample and DNA of D. repens in second positive sample. In second sample, parallel co-infection of D. repens with Wolbachia was also found. While D. immitis sequence showed 98.70-100% similarity with previously reported sequences of D. immitis from dog blood, D. repens shared 100% identity with other sequences of D. repens.

CONCLUSION

These results provided first evidence for Dirofilaria spp. in Kyrgyzstan and emphasized the veterinary and medical importance.

Evaluación de enfermedades transmitidas por vectores en perros de un área de clima sub-frío de México

La distribución geográfica de las enfermedades transmitidas por vectores está influenciada por una dinámica compleja de factores ambientales, sociales y el impacto cambiante de la transmisión de sus vectores, huéspedes intermedios y reservorios. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar la seropositividad a anticuerpos anti-Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferia y la seropositividad a antígenos de Dirofilaria immitis en perros de un área de México con un clima semifrío. Se tomaron 100 muestras de sangre de caninos de hogares privados y en clínicas veterinarias del estado de Amecameca de Juárez, Estado de México. El análisis de las muestras se llevó a cabo mediante un kit comercial de ELISA (Test SNAP® 4Dx® Plus Canine IDEXX®). A los resultados se observó una seropositividad a anticuerpos anti-E. canis del 30 %, 9 % para A. phagocytophilum, 4 % para B. burgdorferi y 16 % para antígenos de D. immitis. Así mismo, se halló una relación estadísticamente significativa entre la seropositividad a anticuerpos anti-E. canis y perros mayores a un año y de raza. Por otra parte se reportaron resultados similares en perros machos y mayores de un año con seropositividad a D. immitis. Con los resultados obtenidos, se concluye que existe una mayor seropositividad para la infección por E. canis y D. immitis y una asociación significativa en perros mayores de un año. Es de gran relevancia conocer la epidemiología de patógenos transmitidos por garrapatas debido al impacto zoonotico que implican. Se recomiendan investigaciones adicionales, así como medidas preventivas de salud animal y salud pública para reducir el riesgo de infección en perros.

The global status of Dirofilaria immitis in dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on published articles

Dirofilaria immitis is a parasitic filarial nematode responsible for heartworm disease in domestic as well as wild canines and felines and pulmonary or cutaneous infections in humans. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the status of D. immitis in dogs based on available literature. Four English language databases (ISI Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and Science Direct) containing data on D. immitis prevalence in dogs were thoroughly searched resulting in the inclusion of 193 studies. The findings revealed that the pooled and weighted prevalence of D. immitis infection in dog population based on published papers throughout the world was 10.91% (95% CI=10.18-11.65). In addition, subgroup analysis based on meta-regression revealed that a significant difference between the pooled and weighted prevalence of D. immitis in dogs and country (β =0.14, P=0.049). Given the relatively high prevalence of D. immitis infection in dogs and its adverse effects, it is suggested that to perform more research on the prevention and control of dirofilariasis infection in dogs worldwide.

Filarial infections in dogs in Cyprus, an apparently heartworm free island

The current study investigated for the first time the occurrence of filarial infections in dogs in Cyprus. Blood samples of dogs from five districts of Cyprus (Lefkosia, Lemessos, Larnaka, Pafos and Ammochostos) were examined by the modified Knott's method and by serology, and the morphological classification of microfilariae was confirmed by molecular methods. A total of 200 dogs, 153 living in shelters and 47 owned dogs, were included in the study. Acanthocheilonema reconditum microfilariae were found in 9 (4.5%) samples and one (0.5%) sample was seropositive for D. immitis. No statistical significance was observed between microfilaraemic samples and the evaluated variables apart from the district (p = .005). The present study showed that dogs in Cyprus can be infected with blood circulating microfilariae and for the first time A. reconditum was reported as autochthonous infection in dogs in the country. No microfilariae of Dirofilaria spp. were detected. However, veterinarians should remain vigilant regarding Dirofilaria infections and should consider preventive protection to the animals, at least in case of travel in enzootic areas.

A Retrospective Epidemiological Study: The Prevalence of Ehrlichia canis and Babesia vogeli in Dogs in the Aegean Region of Turkey

Among tick-borne diseases, Ehrlichia canis and Babesia piroplasm cause important diseases in dogs where the distributions of the pathogen, vector and host overlap. The primary aim of the present study was to detect the prevalence of Babesia spp. and E. canis using PCR and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assay in a total of 379 samples comprising stray and owned dogs and to compare the diagnostic sensitivity of the two tests. Overall, 41.4% of dogs were infected with B. vogeli and/or E. canis as single (35.4%) and mixed (6.1%) infections. The majority of Babesia positive dogs (74.1%) were co-infected with E. canis. PCR detected a higher (P= 0.000) number of positivity in some provinces compared to RLB. To the best of our knowledge, these findings provide the first molecular evidence for the existence of B. vogeli in the Aegean Region, Turkey. The present study pinpoints the distribution and prevalence of E. canis and B. vogeli in the Aegean region of Turkey as of 2004 and as such establishes a baseline. This is of pivotal importance for future studies aimed to demonstrate changes in the dynamics of E. canis and B. vogeli infections in the region.

Cross-Sectional Serosurvey and Factors Associated with Exposure of Dogs to Vector-Borne Pathogens in Greece

Blood samples from 2620 dogs living in 7 different areas were used for the detection of antibodies against Ehrlichia canis and Borrelia burgdorferi and Dirofilaria immitis antigen. Previously published seropositivity data against Leishmania infantum from the same samples were also used to identify multiple-pathogen seropositivity. The associations between seropositivity against each pathogen and gender, age, utility, hair length, and region of residence were evaluated by multivariate logistic regression analyses. The prevalence of seropositivity against E. canis, B. burgdorferi, and D. immitis was 12.25%, 2.23%, and 5.96%, respectively. Double- and triple-pathogen seropositivity was detected in seven different combinations. Age and region of residence were strongly associated with seropositivity against all pathogens. The association between seropositivity and the area of residence highlights the need for regular testing of dogs for vector-borne pathogens in areas with similar conditions to define control measures.

Prevalence and risk factors for selected canine vector-borne diseases in Greece

Background

Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) represent a wide group of diseases of major significance for canine health. In addition to their veterinary importance, many of these diseases are of great zoonotic concern, posing a risk of potential transmission to humans. To date, there has been scant knowledge regarding the prevalence, distribution and risk factors of CVBDs in Greece. Therefore, the objectives of the present study were to update the current knowledge on the seroprevalence of Dirofilaria immitis, Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) in dogs in Greece and, furthermore, to assess possible environmental and any other risk factors associated with these infections. A total of 1000 apparently healthy and randomly selected dogs, presented in veterinary clinics, were involved at the national level (n = 66 municipalities). Serum samples were obtained from each individual dog and were tested using the SNAP^® 4Dx^® Plus kit from IDEXX Laboratories. Possible risk factors were assessed using binary regression models, including dogs’ lifestyle, climatological parameters and the altitude of the region.

Results

Overall, 21.8% (95% CI: 19.4–24.5%) of the sampled dogs were found to be seropositive to at least one of the four pathogens examined. The most prevalent pathogen was Ehrlichia spp. (12.5%, 95% CI: 10.6–14.7) followed by D. immitis (9.0%, 95% CI: 7.8–11.5) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%, 95% CI: 4.9–7.9). The lowest prevalence (0.1%) was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) where only one dog was found to be positive. Among the examined risk factors, low mean temperature was found to increase the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. (P ≤ 0.001) and Anaplasma spp. (P ≤ 0.001), while low minimum temperature increased the prevalence of D. immitis (P ≤ 0.001). In addition, low total annual rainfall had an effect of the prevalence of Ehrlichia spp. (P ≤ 0.01). Altitude also had a significant effect on the prevalence of D. immitis (P ≤ 0.05) and Anaplasma spp. (P ≤ 0.01).

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Greece. It has been evidenced that environmental factors such as temperature, rainfall and altitude can influence the prevalence and distribution of CVBDs.

Nonconventional opponents: a review of malaria and leishmaniasis among United States Armed Forces

As the United States military engage with different countries and cultures throughout the world, personnel become exposed to new biospheres as well. There are many infectious pathogens that are not endemic to the US, but two of particular importance are Plasmodium and Leishmania, which respectively cause malaria and leishmaniasis. These parasites are both known to cause significant disease burden in their endemic locales, and thus pose a threat to military travelers. This review introduces readers to basic life cycle and disease mechanisms for each. Local and military epidemiology are described, as are the specific actions taken by the US military for prevention and treatment purposes. Complications of such measures with regard to human health are also discussed, including possible chemical toxicities. Additionally, poor recognition of these diseases upon an individual's return leading to complications and treatment delays in the United States are examined. Information about canine leishmaniasis, poorly studied relative to its human manifestation, but of importance due to the utilization of dogs in military endeavors is presented. Future implications for the American healthcare system regarding malaria and leishmaniasis are also presented.

First Report of Ixodes nipponensis Infection in Goats in China

Ticks are obligate blood-sucking ectoparasites that infect a wide range of animals and humans, causing a variety of both human and animal diseases around the world. Ixodes nipponensis is the most commonly reported tick in Korea and Japan, but it is very rare in China. In this study, six I. nipponensis samples were collected from three black goats in Hunan province, China. Ticks identified morphologically as I. nipponensis were then examined by PCR with two different molecular markers: mitochondrial cox1 and the second internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal DNA genes. Sequence comparison and phylogenetic analysis of the cox1 sequences confirmed that all of the examined hard Ixodes ticks represented I. nipponensis. This finding indicates a potential risk of zoonotic I. nipponensis infection in humans and animals in China. To our knowledge, this is the first report documenting the occurrence of I. nipponensis infection in goats in China.

Bacterial and protozoal pathogens found in ticks collected from humans in Corum province of Turkey

Background

Tick-borne diseases are increasing all over the word, including Turkey. The aim of this study was to determine the bacterial and protozoan vector-borne pathogens in ticks infesting humans in the Corum province of Turkey.

Methodology/Principal findings

From March to November 2014 a total of 322 ticks were collected from patients who attended the local hospitals with tick bites. Ticks were screened by real time-PCR and PCR, and obtained amplicons were sequenced. The dedected tick was belonging to the genus Hyalomma, Haemaphysalis, Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor and Ixodes. A total of 17 microorganism species were identified in ticks. The most prevalent Rickettsia spp. were: R. aeschlimannii (19.5%), R. slovaca (4.5%), R. raoultii (2.2%), R. hoogstraalii (1.9%), R. sibirica subsp. mongolitimonae (1.2%), R. monacensis (0.31%), and Rickettsia spp. (1.2%). In addition, the following pathogens were identified: Borrelia afzelii (0.31%), Anaplasma spp. (0.31%), Ehrlichia spp. (0.93%), Babesia microti (0.93%), Babesia ovis (0.31%), Babesia occultans (3.4%), Theileria spp. (1.6%), Hepatozoon felis (0.31%), Hepatozoon canis (0.31%), and Hemolivia mauritanica (2.1%). All samples were negative for Francisella tularensis, Coxiella burnetii, Bartonella spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania spp.

Conclusions/Significance

Ticks in Corum carry a large variety of human and zoonotic pathogens that were detected not only in known vectors, but showed a wider vector diversity. There is an increase in the prevalence of ticks infected with the spotted fever group and lymphangitis-associated rickettsiosis, while Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp. were reported for the first time from this region. B. microti was detected for the first time in Hyalomma marginatum infesting humans. The detection of B. occultans, B. ovis, Hepatozoon spp., Theileria spp. and Hemolivia mauritanica indicate the importance of these ticks as vectors of pathogens of veterinary importance, therefore patients with a tick infestation should be followed for a variety of pathogens with medical importance.

Ticks are important vectors for different kind of pathogens, both of medical and veterinary importance, while tick-borne diseases (TBDs) are increasing all over the world. In Turkey, many important human and zoonotic TBDs such as, Lyme borreliosis, rickettsiosis, anaplasmosis, ehrlichiosis, tularemia, bartonellosis, babesiosis, theileriosis, and hepatozoonosis have been reported. Nonetheless, there is lack of research-based information concerning the epidemiology, ecology, and vector diversity of these tick-borne pathogens. In this study, we aimed to investigate broad-range bacterial and protozoan vector-borne pathogens by PCR/RT-PCR and sequencing, those ticks infesting humans in the Corum province. Spotted fever group rickettsiae and lymphangitis-associated rickettsiae, Borrelia afzelii, Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp. were detected. Babesia microti was detected in Hyalomma marginatum infesting humans. Interestingly zoonotic pathogens like Babesia ovis, Babesia occultans, Theileria spp, Hepatozoon felis, Hepatozoon canis, and Hemolivia mauritanica were also detected, showing the role of ticks for diseases also of veterinary importance. This study provides important data for understanding the epidemiology of tick-borne pathogens and it is hoped that these results will challenge clinicians and veterinarians to unify their efforts in the management of TBDs.