A dimeric equilibrium intermediate nucleates Drp1 reassembly on mitochondrial membranes for fission

The Structure of the Drp1 Lattice on Membrane

Mitochondrial health relies on the membrane fission mediated by dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). Previous structural studies of Drp1 on remodeled membranes were hampered by heterogeneity, leaving a critical gap in the understanding of the mitochondrial fission mechanism. Here we present a cryo-electron microscopy structure of full-length human Drp1 decorated on membrane tubules. Using the reconstruction of average subtracted tubular regions (RASTR) technique, we report that Drp1 forms a locally ordered lattice along the tubule without global helical symmetry. The filaments in the lattice are similar to dynamin rungs with conserved stalk interactions. Adjacent filaments are connected by GTPase domain interactions in a novel stacked conformation. Additionally, we observed contact between Drp1 and membrane that can be assigned to variable domain sequence. We identified two states of the Drp1 lattice representing conformational changes related to membrane curvature differences. Together these structures revealed a putative mechanism by which Drp1 constricts mitochondria membranes in a stepwise, "ratchet" manner.

Mitochondrial network dynamics in pulmonary disease: Bridging the gap between inflammation, oxidative stress, and bioenergetics

Once thought of in terms of bioenergetics, mitochondria are now widely accepted as both the orchestrator of cellular health and the gatekeeper of cell death. The pulmonary disease field has performed extensive efforts to explore the role of mitochondria in regulating inflammation, cellular metabolism, apoptosis, and oxidative stress. However, a critical component of these processes needs to be more studied: mitochondrial network dynamics. Mitochondria morphologically change in response to their environment to regulate these processes through fusion, fission, and mitophagy. This allows mitochondria to adapt their function to respond to cellular requirements, a critical component in maintaining cellular homeostasis. For that reason, mitochondrial network dynamics can be considered a bridge that brings multiple cellular processes together, revealing a potential pathway for therapeutic intervention. In this review, we discuss the critical modulators of mitochondrial dynamics and how they are affected in pulmonary diseases, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), acute lung injury (ALI), and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). A dysregulated mitochondrial network plays a crucial role in lung disease pathobiology, and aberrant fission/fusion/mitophagy pathways are druggable processes that warrant further exploration. Thus, we also discuss the candidates for lung disease therapeutics that regulate mitochondrial network dynamics.

Chemical inhibition of phosphatidylcholine biogenesis reveals its role in mitochondrial division

Phospholipids are major components of biological membranes and play structural and regulatory roles in various biological processes. To determine the biological significance of phospholipids, the use of chemical inhibitors of phospholipid metabolism offers an effective approach; however, the availability of such compounds is limited. In this study, we performed a chemical-genetic screening using yeast and identified small molecules capable of inhibiting phosphatidylcholine (PC) biogenesis, which we designated PC inhibitors 1, 2, 3, and 4 (PCiB-1, 2, 3, and 4). Biochemical analyses indicated that PCiB-2, 3, and 4 inhibited the phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) methyltransferase activity of Cho2, whereas PCiB-1 may inhibit PE transport from mitochondria to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Interestingly, we found that PCiB treatment resulted in mitochondrial fragmentation, which was suppressed by expression of a dominant-negative mutant of the mitochondrial division factor Dnm1. These results provide evidence that normal PC biogenesis is important for the regulation of mitochondrial division.

Structural basis for regulated assembly of the mitochondrial fission GTPase Drp1

Mitochondrial fission is a critical cellular event to maintain organelle function. This multistep process is initiated by the enhanced recruitment and oligomerization of dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) at the surface of mitochondria. As such, Drp1 is essential for inducing mitochondrial division in mammalian cells, and homologous proteins are found in all eukaryotes. As a member of the dynamin superfamily of proteins (DSPs), controlled Drp1 self-assembly into large helical polymers stimulates its GTPase activity to promote membrane constriction. Still, little is known about the mechanisms that regulate correct spatial and temporal assembly of the fission machinery. Here we present a cryo-EM structure of a full-length Drp1 dimer in an auto-inhibited state. This dimer reveals two key conformational rearrangements that must be unlocked through intramolecular rearrangements to achieve the assembly-competent state observed in previous structures. This structural insight provides understanding into the mechanism for regulated self-assembly of the mitochondrial fission machinery.

Effects of phosphorylation on Drp1 activation by its receptors, actin, and cardiolipin

Drp1 is a dynamin family GTPase required for mitochondrial and peroxisomal division. Oligomerization increases Drp1 GTPase activity through interactions between neighboring GTPase domains. In cells, Drp1 is regulated by several factors including Drp1 receptors, actin filaments, cardiolipin, and phosphorylation at two sites: S579 and S600. Commonly, phosphorylation of S579 is considered activating, while S600 phosphorylation is considered inhibiting. However, direct effects of phosphorylation on Drp1 GTPase activity have not been investigated in detail. Here, we compare effects of S579 and S600 phosphorylation on purified Drp1, using phosphomimetic mutants and in vitro phosphorylation. Both phosphomimetic mutants are shifted toward smaller oligomers. Both phosphomimetic mutations maintain basal GTPase activity, but eliminate GTPase stimulation by actin and decrease GTPase stimulation by cardiolipin, Mff, and MiD49. Phosphorylation of S579 by Erk2 produces similar effects. When mixed with wildtype Drp1, both S579D and S600D phosphomimetic mutants reduce the actin-stimulated GTPase activity of Drp1-WT. Conversely, a Drp1 mutant (K38A) lacking GTPase activity stimulates Drp1-WT GTPase activity under both basal and actin-stimulated conditions. These results suggest that the effect of S579 phosphorylation is not to activate Drp1 directly. In addition, our results suggest that nearest neighbor interactions within the Drp1 oligomer affect catalytic activity.

Comparing multifunctional viral and eukaryotic proteins for generating scission necks in membranes

Deterministic formation of membrane scission necks by protein machinery with multiplexed functions is critical in biology. A microbial example is the M2 viroporin, a proton pump from the influenza A virus which is multiplexed with membrane remodeling activity to induce budding and scission in the host membrane during viral maturation. In comparison, the dynamin family constitutes a class of eukaryotic proteins implicated in mitochondrial fission, as well as various budding and endocytosis pathways. In the case of Dnm1, the mitochondrial fission protein in yeast, the membrane remodeling activity is multiplexed with mechanoenzyme activity to create fission necks. It is not clear why these functions are combined in these scission processes, which occur in drastically different compositions and solution conditions. In general, direct experimental access to changing neck sizes induced by individual proteins or peptide fragments is challenging due to the nanoscale dimensions and influence of thermal fluctuations. Here, we use a mechanical model to estimate the size of scission necks by leveraging Small-Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) structural data of protein-lipid systems under different conditions. The influence of interfacial tension, lipid composition, and membrane budding morphology on the size of the induced scission necks is systematically investigated using our data and molecular dynamic simulations. We find that the M2 budding protein from the influenza A virus has robust pH-dependent membrane activity that induces nanoscopic necks within the range of spontaneous hemi-fission for a broad range of lipid compositions. In contrast, the sizes of scission necks generated by mitochondrial fission proteins strongly depend on lipid composition, which suggests a role for mechanical constriction.

Allosteric control of dynamin-related protein 1 through a disordered C-terminal Short Linear Motif

The mechanochemical GTPase dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) catalyzes mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission, but the regulatory mechanisms remain ambiguous. Here we find that a conserved, intrinsically disordered, six-residue Short Linear Motif at the extreme Drp1 C-terminus, named CT-SLiM, constitutes a critical allosteric site that controls Drp1 structure and function in vitro and in vivo. Extension of the CT-SLiM by non-native residues, or its interaction with the protein partner GIPC-1, constrains Drp1 subunit conformational dynamics, alters self-assembly properties, and limits cooperative GTP hydrolysis, surprisingly leading to the fission of model membranes in vitro. In vivo, the involvement of the native CT-SLiM is critical for productive mitochondrial and peroxisomal fission, as both deletion and non-native extension of the CT-SLiM severely impair their progression. Thus, contrary to prevailing models, Drp1-catalyzed membrane fission relies on allosteric communication mediated by the CT-SLiM, deceleration of GTPase activity, and coupled changes in subunit architecture and assembly-disassembly dynamics.

Human Fis1 directly interacts with Drp1 in an evolutionarily conserved manner to promote mitochondrial fission

Mitochondrial fission protein 1 (Fis1) and dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) are the only two proteins evolutionarily conserved for mitochondrial fission, and directly interact in Saccharomyces cerevisiae to facilitate membrane scission. However, it remains unclear if a direct interaction is conserved in higher eukaryotes as other Drp1 recruiters, not present in yeast, are known. Using NMR, differential scanning fluorimetry, and microscale thermophoresis, we determined that human Fis1 directly interacts with human Drp1 (KD = 12-68 μM), and appears to prevent Drp1 assembly, but not GTP hydrolysis. Similar to yeast, the Fis1-Drp1 interaction appears governed by two structural features of Fis1: its N-terminal arm and a conserved surface. Alanine scanning mutagenesis of the arm identified both loss-of-function and gain-of-function alleles with mitochondrial morphologies ranging from highly elongated (N6A) to highly fragmented (E7A), demonstrating a profound ability of Fis1 to govern morphology in human cells. An integrated analysis identified a conserved Fis1 residue, Y76, that upon substitution to alanine, but not phenylalanine, also caused highly fragmented mitochondria. The similar phenotypic effects of the E7A and Y76A substitutions, along with NMR data, support that intramolecular interactions occur between the arm and a conserved surface on Fis1 to promote Drp1-mediated fission as in S. cerevisiae. These findings indicate that some aspects of Drp1-mediated fission in humans derive from direct Fis1-Drp1 interactions that are conserved across eukaryotes.

The variable domain from dynamin-related protein 1 promotes liquid-liquid phase separation that enhances its interaction with cardiolipin-containing membranes

Dynamins are an essential superfamily of mechanoenzymes that remodel membranes and often contain a "variable domain" important for regulation. For the mitochondrial fission dynamin, dynamin-related protein 1, a regulatory role for the variable domain (VD) is demonstrated by gain- and loss-of-function mutations, yet the basis for this is unclear. Here, the isolated VD is shown to be intrinsically disordered and undergo a cooperative transition in the stabilizing osmolyte trimethylamine N-oxide. However, the osmolyte-induced state is not folded and surprisingly appears as a condensed state. Other co-solutes including known molecular crowder Ficoll PM 70, also induce a condensed state. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments reveal this state to be liquid-like indicating the VD undergoes a liquid-liquid phase separation under crowding conditions. These crowding conditions also enhance binding to cardiolipin, a mitochondrial lipid, which appears to promote phase separation. Since dynamin-related protein 1 is found assembled into discrete punctate structures on the mitochondrial surface, the inference from the present work is that these structures might arise from a condensed state involving the VD that may enable rapid tuning of mechanoenzyme assembly necessary for fission.

Multifaceted functions of Drp1 in hypoxia/ischemia-induced mitochondrial quality imbalance: from regulatory mechanism to targeted therapeutic strategy

Hypoxic-ischemic injury is a common pathological dysfunction in clinical settings. Mitochondria are sensitive organelles that are readily damaged following ischemia and hypoxia. Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) regulates mitochondrial quality and cellular functions via its oligomeric changes and multiple modifications, which plays a role in mediating the induction of multiple organ damage during hypoxic-ischemic injury. However, there is active controversy and gaps in knowledge regarding the modification, protein interaction, and functions of Drp1, which both hinder and promote development of Drp1 as a novel therapeutic target. Here, we summarize recent findings on the oligomeric changes, modification types, and protein interactions of Drp1 in various hypoxic-ischemic diseases, as well as the Drp1-mediated regulation of mitochondrial quality and cell functions following ischemia and hypoxia. Additionally, potential clinical translation prospects for targeting Drp1 are discussed. This review provides new ideas and targets for proactive interventions on multiple organ damage induced by various hypoxic-ischemic diseases.

Mitochondrial degradation: Mitophagy and beyond

Mitochondria are central hubs of cellular metabolism that also play key roles in signaling and disease. It is therefore fundamentally important that mitochondrial quality and activity are tightly regulated. Mitochondrial degradation pathways contribute to quality control of mitochondrial networks and can also regulate the metabolic profile of mitochondria to ensure cellular homeostasis. Here, we cover the many and varied ways in which cells degrade or remove their unwanted mitochondria, ranging from mitophagy to mitochondrial extrusion. The molecular signals driving these varied pathways are discussed, including the cellular and physiological contexts under which the different degradation pathways are engaged.

Effects of phosphorylation on Drp1 activation by its receptors, actin, and cardiolipin

Drp1 is a dynamin family GTPase that is required for mitochondrial and peroxisomal division, in which it oligomerizes into a ring and constricts the underlying membrane in a GTP hydrolysis-dependent manner. Oligomerization increases Drp1 GTPase activity through interactions between neighboring GTPase domains. In cells, Drp1 is regulated by several factors including Drp1 receptors, actin filaments, cardiolipin, and phosphorylation at two sites: S579 and S600. Phosphorylation of S579 is widely regarded as activating, while S600 phosphorylation is commonly considered inhibiting. However, the direct effects of phosphorylation on Drp1 GTPase activity have not been investigated in detail. In this study, we compare the effects of S579 and S600 phosphorylation on purified Drp1, using phospho-mimetic mutants and in vitro phosphorylation. The oligomerization state of both phospho-mimetic mutants is shifted toward smaller oligomers. Both phospho-mimetic mutations maintain basal GTPase activity, but eliminate GTPase stimulation by actin and decrease GTPase stimulation by cardiolipin, Mff, and MiD49. Phosphorylation of S579 by Erk2 produces similar effects. When mixed with wild-type Drp1, both S579D and S600D phospho-mimetic mutants reduce the actin-stimulated GTPase activity of Drp1-WT. Conversely, a Drp1 mutant that lacks GTPase activity, the K38A mutant, stimulates Drp1-WT GTPase activity under both basal and actin-stimulated conditions, similar to previous results for dynamin-1. These results suggest that the effect of S579 phosphorylation is not to activate Drp1 directly, and likely requires additional factors for stimulation of mitochondrial fission in cells. In addition, our results suggest that nearest neighbor interactions within the Drp1 oligomer affect catalytic activity.

Targeting mitochondrial dynamics proteins for the treatment of doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an extensively used chemotherapeutic agent that can cause severe and frequent cardiotoxicity, which limits its clinical application. Although there have been extensive researches on the cardiotoxicity caused by DOX, there is still a lack of effective treatment. It is necessary to understand the molecular mechanism of DOX-induced cardiotoxicity and search for new therapeutic targets which do not sacrifice their anticancer effects. Mitochondria are considered to be the main target of cardiotoxicity caused by DOX. The imbalance of mitochondrial dynamics characterized by increased mitochondrial fission and inhibited mitochondrial fusion is often reported in DOX-induced cardiotoxicity, which can result in excessive ROS production, energy metabolism disorders, cell apoptosis, and various other problems. Also, mitochondrial dynamics disorder is related to tumorigenesis. Surprisingly, recent studies show that targeting mitochondrial dynamics proteins such as DRP1 and MFN2 can not only defend against DOX-induced cardiotoxicity but also enhance or not impair the anticancer effect. Herein, we summarize mitochondrial dynamics disorder in DOX-induced cardiac injury. Furthermore, we provide an overview of current pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions targeting proteins involved in mitochondrial dynamics to alleviate cardiac damage caused by DOX.

OPA1 helical structures give perspective to mitochondrial dysfunction

Dominant optic atrophy is one of the leading causes of childhood blindness. Around 60-80% of cases1 are caused by mutations of the gene that encodes optic atrophy protein 1 (OPA1), a protein that has a key role in inner mitochondrial membrane fusion and remodelling of cristae and is crucial for the dynamic organization and regulation of mitochondria2. Mutations in OPA1 result in the dysregulation of the GTPase-mediated fusion process of the mitochondrial inner and outer membranes3. Here we used cryo-electron microscopy methods to solve helical structures of OPA1 assembled on lipid membrane tubes, in the presence and absence of nucleotide. These helical assemblies organize into densely packed protein rungs with minimal inter-rung connectivity, and exhibit nucleotide-dependent dimerization of the GTPase domains-a hallmark of the dynamin superfamily of proteins4. OPA1 also contains several unique secondary structures in the paddle domain that strengthen its membrane association, including membrane-inserting helices. The structural features identified in this study shed light on the effects of pathogenic point mutations on protein folding, inter-protein assembly and membrane interactions. Furthermore, mutations that disrupt the assembly interfaces and membrane binding of OPA1 cause mitochondrial fragmentation in cell-based assays, providing evidence of the biological relevance of these interactions.

The Role of Mitochondrial Dynamics and Mitotic Fission in Regulating the Cell Cycle in Cancer and Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension: Implications for Dynamin-Related Protein 1 and Mitofusin2 in Hyperproliferative Diseases

Mitochondria, which generate ATP through aerobic respiration, also have important noncanonical functions. Mitochondria are dynamic organelles, that engage in fission (division), fusion (joining) and translocation. They also regulate intracellular calcium homeostasis, serve as oxygen-sensors, regulate inflammation, participate in cellular and organellar quality control and regulate the cell cycle. Mitochondrial fission is mediated by the large GTPase, dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) which, when activated, translocates to the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) where it interacts with binding proteins (Fis1, MFF, MiD49 and MiD51). At a site demarcated by the endoplasmic reticulum, fission proteins create a macromolecular ring that divides the organelle. The functional consequence of fission is contextual. Physiological fission in healthy, nonproliferating cells mediates organellar quality control, eliminating dysfunctional portions of the mitochondria via mitophagy. Pathological fission in somatic cells generates reactive oxygen species and triggers cell death. In dividing cells, Drp1-mediated mitotic fission is critical to cell cycle progression, ensuring that daughter cells receive equitable distribution of mitochondria. Mitochondrial fusion is regulated by the large GTPases mitofusin-1 (Mfn1) and mitofusin-2 (Mfn2), which fuse the OMM, and optic atrophy 1 (OPA-1), which fuses the inner mitochondrial membrane. Mitochondrial fusion mediates complementation, an important mitochondrial quality control mechanism. Fusion also favors oxidative metabolism, intracellular calcium homeostasis and inhibits cell proliferation. Mitochondrial lipids, cardiolipin and phosphatidic acid, also regulate fission and fusion, respectively. Here we review the role of mitochondrial dynamics in health and disease and discuss emerging concepts in the field, such as the role of central versus peripheral fission and the potential role of dynamin 2 (DNM2) as a fission mediator. In hyperproliferative diseases, such as pulmonary arterial hypertension and cancer, Drp1 and its binding partners are upregulated and activated, positing mitochondrial fission as an emerging therapeutic target.

Allosteric control of dynamin-related protein 1-catalyzed mitochondrial fission through a conserved disordered C-terminal Short Linear Motif

The mechanochemical GTPase dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) catalyzes mitochondrial fission, but the regulatory mechanisms remain ambiguous. Here we found that a conserved, intrinsically disordered, six-residue Short Linear Motif at the extreme Drp1 C-terminus, named CT-SLiM, constitutes a critical allosteric site that controls Drp1 structure and function in vitro and in vivo. Extension of the CT-SLiM by non-native residues, or its interaction with the protein partner GIPC-1, constrains Drp1 subunit conformational dynamics, alters self-assembly properties, and limits cooperative GTP hydrolysis, leading to the fission of model membranes in vitro. In vivo, the availability of the native CT-SLiM is a requirement for productive mitochondrial fission, as both non-native extension and deletion of the CT-SLiM severely impair its progression. Thus, contrary to prevailing models, Drp1-catalyzed mitochondrial fission relies on allosteric communication mediated by the CT-SLiM, deceleration of GTPase activity, and coupled changes in subunit architecture and assembly-disassembly dynamics.

Disease-associated mutations in Drp1 have fundamentally different effects on the mitochondrial fission machinery

Patient mutations have been identified throughout dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), the key protein mediator of mitochondrial fission. These changes generally impact young children and often result in severe neurological defects and, in some instances, death. Until now, the underlying functional defect leading to patient phenotypes has been largely speculative. We therefore analyzed six disease-associated mutations throughout the GTPase and middle domains (MD) of Drp1. The MD plays a role in Drp1 oligomerization, and three mutations in this region were predictably impaired in self-assembly. However, another mutant in this region (F370C) retained oligomerization capability on pre-curved membranes despite being assembly-limited in solution. Instead, this mutation impaired membrane remodeling of liposomes, which highlights the importance of Drp1 in generating local membrane curvature before fission. Two GTPase domain mutations were also observed in different patients. The G32A mutation was impaired in GTP hydrolysis both in solution and in the presence of lipid but remains capable of self-assembly on these lipid templates. The G223V mutation also exhibited decreased GTPase activity and was able to assemble on pre-curved lipid templates; however, this change impaired membrane remodeling of unilamellar liposomes similar to F370C. This demonstrates that the Drp1 GTPase domain also contributes to self-assembly interactions that drive membrane curvature. Overall, the functional defects caused by mutations in Drp1 are highly variable even for mutations that reside within the same functional domain. This study provides a framework for characterizing additional Drp1 mutations to provide a comprehensive understanding of functional sites within this essential protein.

The role of the mitochondrial outer membrane protein SLC25A46 in mitochondrial fission and fusion

Mutations in SLC25A46 underlie a wide spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases associated with alterations in mitochondrial morphology. We established an SLC25A46 knock-out cell line in human fibroblasts and studied the pathogenicity of three variants (p.T142I, p.R257Q, and p.E335D). Mitochondria were fragmented in the knock-out cell line and hyperfused in all pathogenic variants. The loss of SLC25A46 led to abnormalities in the mitochondrial cristae ultrastructure that were not rescued by the expression of the variants. SLC25A46 was present in discrete puncta at mitochondrial branch points and tips of mitochondrial tubules, co-localizing with DRP1 and OPA1. Virtually, all fission/fusion events were demarcated by a SLC25A46 focus. SLC25A46 co-immunoprecipitated with the fusion machinery, and loss of function altered the oligomerization state of OPA1 and MFN2. Proximity interaction mapping identified components of the ER membrane, lipid transfer proteins, and mitochondrial outer membrane proteins, indicating that it is present at interorganellar contact sites. SLC25A46 loss of function led to altered mitochondrial lipid composition, suggesting that it may facilitate interorganellar lipid flux or play a role in membrane remodeling associated with mitochondrial fusion and fission.

The variable domain from the mitochondrial fission mechanoenzyme Drp1 promotes liquid-liquid phase separation

Dynamins are an essential superfamily of mechanoenzymes that remodel membranes and often contain a "variable domain" (VD) important for regulation. For the mitochondrial fission dynamin, Drp1, a regulatory role for the VD is demonstrated by mutations that can elongate, or fragment, mitochondria. How the VD encodes inhibitory and stimulatory activity is unclear. Here, isolated VD is shown to be intrinsically disordered (ID) yet undergoes a cooperative transition in the stabilizing osmolyte TMAO. However, the TMAO stabilized state is not folded and surprisingly appears as a condensed state. Other co-solutes including known molecular crowder Ficoll PM 70, also induce a condensed state. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments reveal this state to be liquid-like indicating the VD undergoes a liquid-liquid phase separation under crowding conditions. These crowding conditions also enhance binding to cardiolipin, a mitochondrial lipid, raising the possibility that phase separation may enable rapid tuning of Drp1 assembly necessary for fission.

Human Fis1 directly interacts with Drp1 in an evolutionarily conserved manner to promote mitochondrial fission

Mitochondrial Fission Protein 1 (Fis1) and Dynamin Related Protein 1 (Drp1) are the only two proteins evolutionarily conserved for mitochondrial fission, and directly interact in S. cerevisiae to facilitate membrane scission. However, it remains unclear if a direct interaction is conserved in higher eukaryotes as other Drp1 recruiters, not present in yeast, are known. Using NMR, differential scanning fluorimetry, and microscale thermophoresis, we determined that human Fis1 directly interacts with human Drp1 ( K D = 12-68 µM), and appears to prevent Drp1 assembly, but not GTP hydrolysis. Similar to yeast, the Fis1-Drp1 interaction appears governed by two structural features of Fis1: its N-terminal arm and a conserved surface. Alanine scanning mutagenesis of the arm identified both loss- and gain-of-function alleles with mitochondrial morphologies ranging from highly elongated (N6A) to highly fragmented (E7A) demonstrating a profound ability of Fis1 to govern morphology in human cells. An integrated analysis identified a conserved Fis1 residue, Y76, that upon substitution to alanine, but not phenylalanine, also caused highly fragmented mitochondria. The similar phenotypic effects of the E7A and Y76A substitutions, along with NMR data, support that intramolecular interactions occur between the arm and a conserved surface on Fis1 to promote Drp1-mediated fission as in S. cerevisiae . These findings indicate that some aspects of Drp1-mediated fission in humans derive from direct Fis1-Drp1 interactions that are conserved across eukaryotes.

Nitration-mediated activation of the small GTPase RhoA stimulates cellular glycolysis through enhanced mitochondrial fission

Mitochondrial fission and a Warburg phenotype of increased cellular glycolysis are involved in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension (PH). The purpose of this study was to determine whether increases in mitochondrial fission are involved in a glycolytic switch in pulmonary arterial endothelial cells (PAECs). Mitochondrial fission is increased in PAEC isolated from a sheep model of PH induced by pulmonary overcirculation (Shunt PAEC). In Shunt PAEC we identified increases in the S616 phosphorylation responsible for dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) activation, the mitochondrial redistribution of Drp1, and increased cellular glycolysis. Reducing mitochondrial fission attenuated cellular glycolysis in Shunt PAEC. In addition, we observed nitration-mediated activation of the small GTPase RhoA in Shunt PAEC, and utilizing a nitration-shielding peptide, NipR1 attenuated RhoA nitration and reversed the Warburg phenotype. Thus, our data identify a novel link between RhoA, mitochondrial fission, and cellular glycolysis and suggest that targeting RhoA nitration could have therapeutic benefits for treating PH.

Mitochondria-associated niches in health and disease

The appreciation of the importance of interorganelle contacts has steadily increased over the past decades. Advances in imaging, molecular biology and bioinformatic techniques allowed the discovery of new mechanisms involved in the interaction and communication between organelles, providing novel insights into the inner works of a cell. In this Review, with the mitochondria under the spotlight, we discuss the most recent findings on the mechanisms mediating the communication between organelles, focusing on Ca2+ signaling, lipid exchange, cell death and stress responses. Notably, we introduce a new integrative perspective to signaling networks that is regulated by interorganelle interactions – the mitochondria-associated niches – focusing on the link between the molecular determinants of contact sites and their functional outputs, rather than simply physical and structural communication. In addition, we highlight the neuropathological and metabolic implications of alterations in mitochondria-associated niches and outline how this concept might improve our understanding of multi-organelle interactions.

Dephosphorylation of ERK1/2 and DRP1 S585 regulates mitochondrial dynamics in glutamate toxicity of retinal neurons in vitro

There are many theories surrounding the pathogenesis of glaucoma, and glutamate excitatory toxicity has been suggested to play an important role. Some studies have shown that glutamate excitatory toxicity is associated with mitochondrial dynamics; however, the relationship between glutamate excitatory toxicity and mitochondrial dynamics in the pathogenesis of glaucoma remains unclear. In this study, the glutamate transporter inhibitor, threohydroxyaspartate, was used to simulate the glutamate excitatory toxicity cell model of rat retinal neurons in vitro, and the changes in the level of proteins related to mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial morphology, and length of neuronal axons were measured. We found that in the glutamate excitotoxicity model, retinal neurons can promote mitochondrial fusion by reducing the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and its downstream protein DRP1 S585, and enhance its ability to resist the excitotoxicity of glutamate. At the same time, the DRP1-specific inhibitor, Mdivi-1, could promote the mitochondrial fusion of retinal neurons.

Decreased mitophagy aggravates benign prostatic hyperplasia in aged mice through DRP1 and estrogen receptor α

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an age-related disease, whose etiology largely remains unclear. The regulation of mitophagy plays a key role in aging and associated diseases, however, its function in BPH has not been studied. Although the expression of the androgen receptor is primarily implicated in BPH, the estrogen receptor (ER) has been reported to be involved in the development of BPH by mediating the proliferation of prostate cells. Here, we studied the involvement of mitophagy and ERs in spontaneous BPH in aging mice and investigated their functions. To identify the activation of mitophagy and expression of ERs, 8-week, 12-month, and 24-month-old mice were used. Mice were treated with mitochondrial division inhibitor mdivi-1, a dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) inhibitor, to examine the expression of mitophagy-related proteins and the development of BPH. In addition, prostate stromal cells were treated with an ER antagonist to investigate the regulation of mitophagy following the expression of ERs. With aging, the Drp1 and phosphorylation of parkin reduce. Electron microscopy revealed reduced mitochondrial fission and mitophagy. In addition, the expression of androgen receptor was decreased and that of ERα was increased in aged mice with BPH. Treatment with mdivi-1 exacerbated BPH and increased cell proliferation. In addition, blockade of ERα increased mitophagy and decreased cell proliferation. In conclusion, mitophagy is reduced with aging during the development of BPH. We speculate that spontaneous BPH progresses through the reduction in the expression of ERα in aged mice by downregulating mitophagy.

Mitochondrial fission mediated by Drp1-Fis1 pathway and neurodegenerative diseases

In recent years, the role of mitochondrial dynamics in neurodegenerative diseases has becoming increasingly important. More and more evidences have shown that in pathological conditions, abnormal mitochondrial divisions, especially Drp1-Fis1-mediated divisions, play an important role in the occurrence and development of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, glaucoma, and other neurodegenerative diseases. This review highlights several new mechanisms of physiological fission of mitochondria and the difference/connection of physiological/pathological mitochondrial fission. In addition, we described the relationship between abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and neurodegenerative diseases in detail and emphatically summarized its detection indicators in basic experiments, trying to provide references for further mechanism exploration and therapeutic targets.

Role of Mitochondrial Dynamics in Cocaine's Neurotoxicity

The dynamic balance of mitochondrial fission and fusion maintains mitochondrial homeostasis and optimal function. It is indispensable for cells such as neurons, which rely on the finely tuned mitochondria to carry out their normal physiological activities. The potent psychostimulant cocaine impairs mitochondria as one way it exerts its neurotoxicity, wherein the disturbances in mitochondrial dynamics have been suggested to play an essential role. In this review, we summarize the neurotoxicity of cocaine and the role of mitochondrial dynamics in cellular physiology. Subsequently, we introduce current findings that link disturbed neuronal mitochondrial dynamics with cocaine exposure. Finally, the possible role and potential therapeutic value of mitochondrial dynamics in cocaine neurotoxicity are discussed.

Molecular and cellular dynamics of early embryonic cell divisions in Volvox carteri

Cell division is fundamental to all organisms and the green alga used here exhibits both key animal and plant functions. Specifically, we analyzed the molecular and cellular dynamics of early embryonic divisions of the multicellular green alga Volvox carteri (Chlamydomonadales). Relevant proteins related to mitosis and cytokinesis were identified in silico, the corresponding genes were cloned, fused to yfp, and stably expressed in Volvox, and the tagged proteins were studied by live-cell imaging. We reveal rearrangements of the microtubule cytoskeleton during centrosome separation, spindle formation, establishment of the phycoplast, and generation of previously unknown structures. The centrosomes participate in initiation of spindle formation and determination of spindle orientation. Although the nuclear envelope does not break down during early mitosis, intermixing of cytoplasm and nucleoplasm results in loss of nuclear identity. Finally, we present a model for mitosis in Volvox. Our study reveals enormous dynamics, clarifies spatio-temporal relationships of subcellular structures, and provides insight into the evolution of cell division.

Insights Into Mitochondrial Dynamics in Chlamydial Infection

Mitochondria are intracellular organelles that are instrumental in the creation of energy, metabolism, apoptosis, and intrinsic immunity. Mitochondria exhibit an extraordinarily high degree of flexibility, and are constantly undergoing dynamic fusion and fission changes. Chlamydia is an intracellular bacterium that causes serious health problems in both humans and animals. Due to a deficiency of multiple metabolic enzymes, these pathogenic bacteria are highly dependent on their eukaryotic host cells, resulting in a close link between Chlamydia infection and host cell mitochondria. Indeed, Chlamydia increase mitochondrial fusion by inhibiting the activation of dynein-related protein 1 (DRP1), which can regulate host cell metabolism for extra energy. Additionally, Chlamydia can inhibit mitochondrial fission by blocking DRP1 oligomerization, preventing host cell apoptosis. These mechanisms are critical for maintaining a favorable environment for reproduction and growth of Chlamydia. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial fusion and fission, as well as the mechanisms by which Chlamydia infection alters the mitochondrial dynamics and the prospects of limiting chlamydial development by altering mitochondrial dynamics.

Metal-Binding Propensity in the Mitochondrial Dynamin-Related Protein 1

Dynamin-related protein1 (Drp1) functions to divide mitochondria and peroxisomes by binding specific adaptor proteins and lipids, both of which are integral to the limiting organellar membrane. In efforts to understand how such multivalent interactions regulate Drp1 functions, in vitro reconstitution schemes rely on recruiting soluble portions of the adaptors appended with genetically encoded polyhistidine tags onto membranes containing Ni²⁺-bound chelator lipids. These strategies are facile and circumvent the challenge in working with membrane proteins but assume that binding is specific to proteins carrying the polyhistidine tag. Here, we find using chelator lipids and chelator beads that both native and recombinant Drp1 directly bind Ni²⁺ ions. Metal binding, therefore, represents a potential strategy to deplete or purify Drp1 from native tissue lysates. Importantly, high concentrations of the metal in solution inhibit GTP hydrolysis and renders Drp1 inactive in membrane fission. Together, our results emphasize a metal-binding propensity, which could significantly impact Drp1 functions.

Light Scattering Techniques to Assess Self-Assembly and Hydrodynamics of Membrane Trafficking Proteins

Light scattering methods permit the determination of molar mass and hydrodynamic radius for a protein from first principles. They are, therefore, particularly useful for the biophysical characterization of any protein. Molar mass and hydrodynamic radius determinations may be used to demonstrate that the protein of interest multimerizes. In the endomembrane system, reversible and regulated assembly and multimerization of proteins is critical for building coats required for vesicle budding, for the function of membrane remodeling machines, for fission and fusion and for assembling and disassembling trafficking intermediates. Light scattering methods have therefore significantly contributed to the understanding of the underlying trafficking processes. Herein, we describe methods to express and purify the recombinant fungal SNX-BAR Mvp1, a membrane remodeling protein required for retrograde trafficking at the endosome. Using Mvp1 as an example, we provide protocols for determining its molar mass and hydrodynamic radius by multiangle static light scattering and dynamic light scattering, respectively. These methods can be applied directly to the study of other membrane trafficking proteins, yielding a wealth of biophysical and biochemical information.

The Molecular Assembly State of Drp1 Controls its Association With the Mitochondrial Recruitment Receptors Mff and MIEF1/2

Drp1 is a central player in mitochondrial fission and is recruited to mitochondria by Mff and MIEFs (MIEF1 and MIEF2), but little is known about how its assembly state affects Drp1 mitochondrial recruitment and fission. Here, we used in vivo chemical crosslinking to explore the self-assembly state of Drp1 and how it regulates the association of Drp1 with MIEFs and Mff. We show that in intact mammalian cells Drp1 exists as a mixture of multiple self-assembly forms ranging from the minimal, probably tetrameric, self-assembly subunit to several higher order oligomers. Precluding mitochondria-bound Drp1 in Mff/MIEF1/2-deficient cells does not affect the oligomerization state of Drp1, while conversely forced recruitment of Drp1 to mitochondria by MIEFs or Mff facilitates Drp1 oligomerization. Mff preferentially binds to higher order oligomers of Drp1, whereas MIEFs bind to a wider-range of Drp1 assembly subunits, including both lower and higher oligomeric states. Mff only recruits active forms of Drp1, while MIEFs are less selective and recruit both active and inactive Drp1 as well as oligomerization- or GTPase-deficient Drp1 mutants to mitochondria. Moreover, all the fission-incompetent Drp1 mutants tested (except the monomeric mutant K668E) affect Drp1-driven mitochondrial dynamics via incorporation of the mutants into the native oligomers to form function-deficient Drp1 assemblies. We here confirm that MIEFs also serve as a platform facilitating the binding of Drp1 to Mff and loss of MIEFs severely impairs the interaction between Drp1 and Mff. Collectively, our findings suggest that Mff and MIEFs respond differently to the molecular assembly state of Drp1 and that the extent of Drp1 oligomerization regulates mitochondrial dynamics.

Regulation of mitochondrial fission by GIPC-mediated Drp1 retrograde transport

Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is a key regulator of mitochondrial fission, a large cytoplasmic GTPase recruited to the mitochondrial surface via transmembrane adaptors to initiate scission. While Brownian motion likely accounts for the local interactions between Drp1 and the mitochondrial adaptors, how this essential enzyme is targeted from more distal regions like the cell periphery remains unknown. Based on proteomic interactome screening and cell-based studies, we report that GAIP/RGS19-interacting protein (GIPC) mediates the actin-based retrograde transport of Drp1 toward the perinuclear mitochondria to enhance fission. Drp1 interacts with GIPC through its atypical C-terminal PDZ-binding motif. Loss of this interaction abrogates Drp1 retrograde transport resulting in cytoplasmic mislocalization and reduced fission despite retaining normal intrinsic GTPase activity. Functionally, we demonstrate that GIPC potentiates the Drp1-driven proliferative and migratory capacity in cancer cells. Together, these findings establish a direct molecular link between altered GIPC expression and Drp1 function in cancer progression and metabolic disorders.

Mitochondrial Phospholipid Homeostasis Is Regulated by the i-AAA Protease PaIAP and Affects Organismic Aging

Mitochondria are ubiquitous organelles of eukaryotic organisms with a number of essential functions, including synthesis of iron-sulfur clusters, amino acids, lipids, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). During aging of the fungal aging model Podospora anserina, the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM) undergoes prominent morphological alterations, ultimately resulting in functional impairments. Since phospholipids (PLs) are key components of biological membranes, maintenance of membrane plasticity and integrity via regulation of PL biosynthesis is indispensable. Here, we report results from a lipidomic analysis of isolated mitochondria from P. anserina that revealed an age-related reorganization of the mitochondrial PL profile and the involvement of the i-AAA protease PaIAP in proteolytic regulation of PL metabolism. The absence of PaIAP enhances biosynthesis of characteristic mitochondrial PLs, leads to significant alterations in the acyl composition of the mitochondrial signature PL cardiolipin (CL), and induces mitophagy. These alterations presumably cause the lifespan increase of the PaIap deletion mutant under standard growth conditions. However, PaIAP is required at elevated temperatures and for degradation of superfluous CL synthase PaCRD1 during glycolytic growth. Overall, our study uncovers a prominent role of PaIAP in the regulation of PL homeostasis in order to adapt membrane plasticity to fluctuating environmental conditions as they occur in nature.

Mitochondrial Regulation of Diabetic Kidney Disease

The role and nature of mitochondrial dysfunction in diabetic kidney disease (DKD) has been extensively studied. Yet, the molecular drivers of mitochondrial remodeling in DKD are poorly understood. Diabetic kidney cells exhibit a cascade of mitochondrial dysfunction ranging from changes in mitochondrial morphology to significant alterations in mitochondrial biogenesis, biosynthetic, bioenergetics and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). How these changes individually or in aggregate contribute to progression of DKD remain to be fully elucidated. Nevertheless, because of the remarkable progress in our basic understanding of the role of mitochondrial biology and its dysfunction in DKD, there is great excitement on future targeted therapies based on improving mitochondrial function in DKD. This review will highlight the latest advances in understanding the nature of mitochondria dysfunction and its role in progression of DKD, and the development of mitochondrial targets that could be potentially used to prevent its progression.

Mitochondrial membranes modify mutant huntingtin aggregation

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the expansion of a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract near the N-terminus of the huntingtin (htt) protein. Expanded polyQ tracts are prone to aggregate into oligomers and insoluble fibrils. Mutant htt (mhtt) localizes to variety of organelles, including mitochondria. Specifically, mitochondrial defects, morphological alteration, and dysfunction are observed in HD. Mitochondrial lipids, cardiolipin (CL) in particular, are essential in mitochondria function and have the potential to directly interact with htt, altering its aggregation. Here, the impact of mitochondrial membranes on htt aggregation was investigated using a combination of mitochondrial membrane mimics and tissue-derived mitochondrial-enriched fractions. The impact of exposure of outer and inner mitochondrial membrane mimics (OMM and IMM respectively) to mhtt was explored. OMM and IMM reduced mhtt fibrillization, with IMM having a larger effect. The role of CL in mhtt aggregation was investigated using a simple PC system with varying molar ratios of CL. Lower molar ratios of CL (<5%) promoted fibrillization; however, increased CL content retarded fibrillization. As revealed by in situ AFM, mhtt aggregation and associated membrane morphological changes at the surface of OMM mimics was markedly different compared to IMM mimics. While globular deposits of mhtt with few fibrillar aggregates were observed on OMM, plateau-like domains were observed on IMM. A similar impact on htt aggregation was observed with exposure to purified mitochondrial-enriched fractions. Collectively, these observations suggest mitochondrial membranes heavily influence htt aggregation with implication for HD.

Mff oligomerization is required for Drp1 activation and synergy with actin filaments during mitochondrial division

Mitochondrial division is an important cellular process in both normal and pathological conditions. The dynamin GTPase Drp1 is a central mitochondrial division protein, driving constriction of the outer mitochondrial membrane. In mammals, the outer mitochondrial membrane protein Mff is a key receptor for recruiting Drp1 from the cytosol to the mitochondrion. Actin filaments are also important in Drp1 recruitment and activation. The manner in which Mff and actin work together in Drp1 activation is unknown. Here, we show that Mff is an oligomer (most likely a trimer) that dynamically associates and disassociates through its C-terminal coiled-coil, with a K_d in the range of 10 µM. Dynamic Mff oligomerization is required for Drp1 activation. While not binding Mff directly, actin filaments enhance Mff-mediated Drp1 activation by lowering the effective Mff concentration 10-fold. Total internal reflection microscopy assays using purified proteins show that Mff interacts with Drp1 on actin filaments in a manner dependent on Mff oligomerization. In U2OS cells, oligomerization-defective Mff does not effectively rescue three defects in Mff knock-out cells: mitochondrial division, mitochondrial Drp1 recruitment, and peroxisome division. The ability of Mff to assemble into puncta on mitochondria depends on its oligomerization, as well as on actin filaments and Drp1.

NMR identification of a conserved Drp1 cardiolipin-binding motif essential for stress-induced mitochondrial fission

Mitochondria form tubular networks that undergo coordinated cycles of fission and fusion. Emerging evidence suggests that a direct yet unresolved interaction of the mechanoenzymatic GTPase dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with mitochondrial outer membrane-localized cardiolipin (CL), externalized under stress conditions including mitophagy, catalyzes essential mitochondrial hyperfragmentation. Here, using a comprehensive set of structural, biophysical, and cell biological tools, we have uncovered a CL-binding motif (CBM) conserved between the Drp1 variable domain (VD) and the unrelated ADP/ATP carrier (AAC/ANT) that intercalates into the membrane core to effect specific CL interactions. CBM mutations that weaken VD-CL interactions manifestly impair Drp1-dependent fission under stress conditions and induce "donut" mitochondria formation. Importantly, VD membrane insertion and GTP-dependent conformational rearrangements mediate only transient CL nonbilayer topological forays and high local membrane constriction, indicating that Drp1-CL interactions alone are insufficient for fission. Our studies establish the structural and mechanistic bases of Drp1-CL interactions in stress-induced mitochondrial fission.

S616-p-DRP1 associates with locally invasive behavior of follicular cell-derived thyroid carcinoma

PURPOSE

Dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1), a mitochondrial fission protein, and its active form phosphorylated at Serine 616 (S616-p-DRP1) have been increasingly associated with tumorigenesis and invasion in various tumor models, including oncocytic thyroid cancer (TC). In this study, the expression of DRP1 and S616-p-DRP1 and its relationship with patients' clinicopathological characteristics, tumor genetic profiles, and clinical outcomes were assessed in a large series of follicular cell-derived TC (FCDTC).

METHODS

Retrospective biomarker study characterizing the clinicopathological and immunochemistry DRP1 and S616-p-DRP1 expression of a series of 259 patients with FCDTC followed in two University Hospitals.

RESULTS

DRP1 expression was positive in 65.3% (169/259) of the cases, while the expression of the S616-p-DRP1 was positive in only 17.3% (17/98). DRP1-positive expression was significantly associated with differentiated tumors (67.7 vs. 48.0%; P = 0.049), non-encapsulated tumors (73.8 vs. 57.4%; P = 0.011) and thyroid capsule invasion (73.4 vs. 57.5%; P = 0.013). S616-p-DRP1-positive expression was significantly associated with tumor infiltrative margins (88.9 vs. 11.1%; P = 0.033), thyroid capsule invasion (29.8 vs. 3.1%; P = 0.043), lymph node metastases (23.3 vs. 8.1%; P = 0.012), and higher mean cumulative radioiodine dosage (317.4 ± 265.0 mCi vs. 202.5 ± 217.7 mCi; P = 0.038). S616-p-DRP1 expression was negatively associated with oncocytic phenotype (0.0 vs. 26.2%; P = 0.028).

CONCLUSIONS

S616-p-DRP1 is a better candidate than DRP1 to identify tumors with locally invasive behavior. Prospective studies should be pursued to assess S616-p-DRP1 role as a molecular marker of malignancy in TC and in patients' risk assessment.

Mitochondrial fusion and fission: The fine-tune balance for cellular homeostasis

Mitochondria are highly dynamic, maternally inherited cytoplasmic organelles, which fulfill cellular energy demand through the oxidative phosphorylation system. Besides, they play an active role in calcium and damage-associated molecular patterns signaling, amino acid, and lipid metabolism, and apoptosis. Thus, the maintenance of mitochondrial integrity and homeostasis is extremely critical, which is achieved through continual fusion and fission. Mitochondrial fusion allows the transfer of gene products between mitochondria for optimal functioning, especially under metabolic and environmental stress. On the other hand, fission is crucial for mitochondrial division and quality control. The imbalance between these two processes is associated with various ailments such as cancer, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms that control mitochondrial fusion and fission and how the disruption of mitochondrial dynamics manifests into various disease conditions.

Coordination of mitochondrial and cellular dynamics by the actin-based motor Myo19

Myosin XIX (Myo19) is an actin-based motor that competes with adaptors of microtubule-based motors for binding to the outer mitochondrial transmembrane proteins Miro1 and Miro2 (collectively Miro, also known as RhoT1 and RhoT2, respectively). Here, we investigate which mitochondrial and cellular processes depend on the coordination of Myo19 and microtubule-based motor activities. To this end, we created Myo19-deficient HEK293T cells. Mitochondria in these cells were not properly fragmented at mitosis and were partitioned asymmetrically to daughter cells. Respiratory functions of mitochondria were impaired and ROS generation was enhanced. On a cellular level, cell proliferation, cytokinesis and cell-matrix adhesion were negatively affected. On a molecular level, Myo19 regulates focal adhesions in interphase, and mitochondrial fusion and mitochondrially associated levels of fission protein Drp1 and adaptor proteins dynactin and TRAK1 at prometaphase. These alterations were due to a disturbed coordination of Myo19 and microtubule-based motor activities by Miro.

Mitochondrial network remodeling: an important feature of myogenesis and skeletal muscle regeneration

The remodeling of the mitochondrial network is a critical process in maintaining cellular homeostasis and is intimately related to mitochondrial function. The interplay between the formation of new mitochondria (biogenesis) and the removal of damaged mitochondria (mitophagy) provide a means for the repopulation of the mitochondrial network. Additionally, mitochondrial fission and fusion serve as a bridge between biogenesis and mitophagy. In recent years, the importance of these processes has been characterised in multiple tissue- and cell-types, and under various conditions. In skeletal muscle, the robust remodeling of the mitochondrial network is observed, particularly after injury where large portions of the tissue/cell structures are damaged. The significance of mitochondrial remodeling in regulating skeletal muscle regeneration has been widely studied, with alterations in mitochondrial remodeling processes leading to incomplete regeneration and impaired skeletal muscle function. Needless to say, important questions related to mitochondrial remodeling and skeletal muscle regeneration still remain unanswered and require further investigation. Therefore, this review will discuss the known molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial network remodeling, as well as integrate these mechanisms and discuss their relevance in myogenesis and regenerating skeletal muscle.

IFN-β rescues neurodegeneration by regulating mitochondrial fission via STAT5, PGAM5, and Drp1

Mitochondrial homeostasis is essential for providing cellular energy, particularly in resource-demanding neurons, defects in which cause neurodegeneration, but the function of interferons (IFNs) in regulating neuronal mitochondrial homeostasis is unknown. We found that neuronal IFN-β is indispensable for mitochondrial homeostasis and metabolism, sustaining ATP levels and preventing excessive ROS by controlling mitochondrial fission. IFN-β induces events that are required for mitochondrial fission, phosphorylating STAT5 and upregulating PGAM5, which phosphorylates serine 622 of Drp1. IFN-β signaling then recruits Drp1 to mitochondria, oligomerizes it, and engages INF2 to stabilize mitochondria-endoplasmic reticulum (ER) platforms. This process tethers damaged mitochondria to the ER to separate them via fission. Lack of neuronal IFN-β in the Ifnb^-/- model of Parkinson disease (PD) disrupts STAT5-PGAM5-Drp1 signaling, impairing fission and causing large multibranched, damaged mitochondria with insufficient ATP production and excessive oxidative stress to accumulate. In other PD models, IFN-β rescues dopaminergic neuronal cell death and pathology, associated with preserved mitochondrial homeostasis. Thus, IFN-β activates mitochondrial fission in neurons through the pSTAT5/PGAM5/^S622 Drp1 pathway to stabilize mitochondria/ER platforms, constituting an essential neuroprotective mechanism.

Phospholipid ebb and flow makes mitochondria go

Mitochondria, so much more than just being energy factories, also have the capacity to synthesize macromolecules including phospholipids, particularly cardiolipin (CL) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Phospholipids are vital constituents of mitochondrial membranes, impacting the plethora of functions performed by this organelle. Hence, the orchestrated movement of phospholipids to and from the mitochondrion is essential for cellular integrity. In this review, we capture recent advances in the field of mitochondrial phospholipid biosynthesis and trafficking, highlighting the significance of interorganellar communication, intramitochondrial contact sites, and lipid transfer proteins in maintaining membrane homeostasis. We then discuss the physiological functions of CL and PE, specifically how they associate with protein complexes in mitochondrial membranes to support bioenergetics and maintain mitochondrial architecture.

Microscale Thermophoresis (MST ) as a Tool for Measuring Dynamin Superfamily Protein (DSP)-Lipid Interactions

Microscale thermophoresis (MST ) is a robust new fluorescence-based technology that enables measurement of biomolecular interactions and binding affinities (K_D). MST is an immobilization-free alternative to surface plasmon resonance (SPR ) and is cost-effective relative to isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC ). In this chapter, using Drp1 as an example, we demonstrate for the first time, the application of MST to the determination of DSP-lipid interactions and the accurate measurement of K_D under physiologically relevant solution conditions.

The Complex Dance of Organelles during Mitochondrial Division

Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that undergo cycles of fission and fusion events depending on cellular requirements. During mitochondrial division, the GTPase dynamin-related protein-1 is recruited to endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-induced mitochondrial constriction sites where it drives fission. However, the events required to complete scission of mitochondrial membranes are not well understood. Here, we emphasize the recently described roles for Golgi-derived phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P)-containing vesicles in the last steps of mitochondrial division. We then propose how trans-Golgi network vesicles at mitochondria-ER contact sites and PI4P generation could mechanistically execute mitochondrial division, by recruiting PI4P effectors and/or the actin nucleation machinery. Finally, we speculate on mechanisms to explain why such a complex dance of different organelles is required to facilitate the remodelling of mitochondrial membranes.

Mitochondrial division, fusion and degradation

The mitochondrion is an essential organelle for a wide range of cellular processes, including energy production, metabolism, signal transduction and cell death. To execute these functions, mitochondria regulate their size, number, morphology and distribution in cells via mitochondrial division and fusion. In addition, mitochondrial division and fusion control the autophagic degradation of dysfunctional mitochondria to maintain a healthy population. Defects in these dynamic membrane processes are linked to many human diseases that include metabolic syndrome, myopathy and neurodegenerative disorders. In the last several years, our fundamental understanding of mitochondrial fusion, division and degradation has been significantly advanced by high resolution structural analyses, protein-lipid biochemistry, super resolution microscopy and in vivo analyses using animal models. Here, we summarize and discuss this exciting recent progress in the mechanism and function of mitochondrial division and fusion.

GFP fluorescence tagging alters dynamin-related protein 1 oligomerization dynamics and creates disassembly-refractory puncta to mediate mitochondrial fission

Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagging is the prevalent strategy to monitor protein dynamics in living cells. However, the consequences of appending the bulky GFP moiety to the protein of interest are rarely investigated. Here, using a powerful combination of quantitative fluorescence spectroscopic and imaging techniques, we have examined the oligomerization dynamics of the GFP-tagged mitochondrial fission GTPase dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) both in vitro and in vivo. We find that GFP-tagged Drp1 exhibits impaired oligomerization equilibria in solution that corresponds to a greatly diminished cooperative GTPase activity in comparison to native Drp1. Consequently, GFP-tagged Drp1 constitutes aberrantly stable, GTP-resistant supramolecular assemblies both in vitro and in vivo, neither of which reflects a more dynamic native Drp1 oligomerization state. Indeed, GFP-tagged Drp1 is detected more frequently per unit length over mitochondria in Drp1-null mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) compared to wild-type (wt) MEFs, indicating that the drastically reduced GTP turnover restricts oligomer disassembly from the mitochondrial surface relative to mixed oligomers comprising native and GFP-tagged Drp1. Yet, GFP-tagged Drp1 retains the capacity to mediate membrane constriction in vitro and mitochondrial division in vivo. These findings suggest that instead of robust assembly-disassembly dynamics, persistent Drp1 higher-order oligomerization over membranes is sufficient for mitochondrial fission.

The Maintenance of Mitochondrial DNA Integrity and Dynamics by Mitochondrial Membranes

Mitochondria are complex organelles that harbour their own genome. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) exists in the form of a circular double-stranded DNA molecule that must be replicated, segregated and distributed around the mitochondrial network. Human cells typically possess between a few hundred and several thousand copies of the mitochondrial genome, located within the mitochondrial matrix in close association with the cristae ultrastructure. The organisation of mtDNA around the mitochondrial network requires mitochondria to be dynamic and undergo both fission and fusion events in coordination with the modulation of cristae architecture. The dysregulation of these processes has profound effects upon mtDNA replication, manifesting as a loss of mtDNA integrity and copy number, and upon the subsequent distribution of mtDNA around the mitochondrial network. Mutations within genes involved in mitochondrial dynamics or cristae modulation cause a wide range of neurological disorders frequently associated with defects in mtDNA maintenance. This review aims to provide an understanding of the biological mechanisms that link mitochondrial dynamics and mtDNA integrity, as well as examine the interplay that occurs between mtDNA, mitochondrial dynamics and cristae structure.

Molecular Basis of Mitochondrial and Peroxisomal Division Machineries

Mitochondria and peroxisomes are ubiquitous subcellular organelles that are highly dynamic and possess a high degree of plasticity. These organelles proliferate through division of pre-existing organelles. Studies on yeast, mammalian cells, and unicellular algae have led to a surprising finding that mitochondria and peroxisomes share the components of their division machineries. At the heart of the mitochondrial and peroxisomal division machineries is a GTPase dynamin-like protein, Dnm1/Drp1, which forms a contractile ring around the neck of the dividing organelles. During division, Dnm1/Drp1 functions as a motor protein and constricts the membrane. This mechanochemical work is achieved by utilizing energy from GTP hydrolysis. Over the last two decades, studies have focused on the structure and assembly of Dnm1/Drp1 molecules around the neck. However, the regulation of GTP during the division of mitochondrion and peroxisome is not well understood. Here, we review the current understanding of Dnm1/Drp1-mediated divisions of mitochondria and peroxisomes, exploring the mechanisms of GTP regulation during the Dnm1/Drp1 function, and provide new perspectives on their potential contribution to mitochondrial and peroxisomal biogenesis.