Stomatal development in the context of epidermal tissues

Ecological implications of stomatal density and stomatal index in the adult stage of Mimosa L. (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae)

Differences in stomatal density (SD) and stomatal index (SI) are associated with the conditions of the environment in which they are distributed. Mimosa species are important elements in different plant communities, yet knowledge of the ecological implications of its stomatal characteristics is scarce. For this reason, SD and SI were determined in seven Mimosa species from different environments in this study. Five individuals per species were selected, and a sample of leaflets was obtained from each. Fifteen mature leaflets per individual were then extracted and observed by optical microscopy. SD, SI, epidermal cell density (ECD), and guard cell length (GCL) values were obtained. Differences between species were analyzed through a balanced analysis of variance test, and the correspondence between the stomatal characteristics and 21 climate variables was determined by canonical correspondence analysis. The species differed in all evaluated characteristics. It should be noted that only M. affinis showed differences between the leaflet surfaces. Both DE and ECD were negatively associated with altitude and solar radiation and positively with temperature and precipitation. SI was explained by temperature and seasonality of precipitation, and GCL by temperature oscillation and seasonality of precipitation. The results suggest that the stomatal characteristics of the leaflets confer resistance in the species to alterations in environmental conditions.

Systemic stomatal responses in plants: Coordinating development, stress, and pathogen defense under a changing climate

To successfully survive, develop, grow and reproduce, multicellular organisms must coordinate their molecular, physiological, developmental and metabolic responses among their different cells and tissues. This process is mediated by cell-to-cell, vascular and/or volatile communication, and involves electric, chemical and/or hydraulic signals. Within this context, stomata serve a dual role by coordinating their responses to the environment with their neighbouring cells at the epidermis, but also with other stomata present on other parts of the plant. As stomata represent one of the most important conduits between the plant and its above-ground environment, as well as directly affect photosynthesis, respiration and the hydraulic status of the plant by controlling its gas and vapour exchange with the atmosphere, coordinating the overall response of stomata within and between different leaves and tissues plays a cardinal role in plant growth, development and reproduction. Here, we discuss different examples of local and systemic stomatal coordination, the different signalling pathways that mediate them, and the importance of systemic stomatal coordination to our food supply, ecosystems and weather patterns, under our changing climate. We further discuss the potential biotechnological implications of regulating systemic stomatal responses for enhancing agricultural productivity in a warmer and CO2 -rich environment.

Performance and morphology of several soybean varieties and responses to pests and diseases in South Sulawesi

Soybeans are a commodity that is widely grown by farmers in rainfed rice fields in South Sulawesi. One of the determining factors in increasing soybean productivity in South Sulawesi is the type of variety. The aim of this research was to determine the characteristics, morphology and response to pests and diseases in several soybean varieties planted in rainfed rice fields in South Sulawesi. This research was carried out in Allepolea Village, Maros Regency in 2022 using a Randomized Block Design with 13 treatments and 3 replications. Varieties tested as treatments include: 1) Derap-1, 2) Devon-2, 3) Deja-1, 4) Anjasmoro, 5) Dena-2, 6) Dena-1, 7) Gepak Kuning, 8) Grobogan, 9) Devon-1, 10) Dega-1, 11) Deja-2, 12) Demas-1, and 13) Detap-1. The results showed that of the 13 varieties tested, the highest height was found in Devon-2 (33.67 cm) and Detap-1 (31.67 cm) in the vegetative phase and in the generative phase in Detap-1 (75.53 cm) and Gepak Yellow (74.67 cm). The largest number of branches is in Dena-1 (3.13 branches). The highest nitrogen content was found in Devon-1 (12.64 m2 per g). The largest leaf area was Detap-1 (4.15 cm2) and Gepak Kuning (4.15 cm2). The highest number of stomata was in Dena-1 (42.80 μm) and Deja-1 (44.00 μm). The highest stomata width was found in Gepak Kuning (2.76 μm). The lowest level of leaf damage due to attacks by Valanga sp (Acrididae) occurred in Grobogan (6.89 %) and Dega-1 (7.35 %). The lowest level of pod damage due to Nezara viridula attack was in Devon-2 (3.56 %) and Dena-2 (3.64 %). The lowest level of leaf damage due to Phaedonia inclusa attack occurred in Dega-1 (4.37 %), Dena-2 (4, 12 %), and Grobogan (4.69 %). Seed damage due to Cercospora sp attack was lowest on Dena-2 (0.81 %). The highest seed yield was in Dena-2 (3.78 t ha-1) and the lowest in Anjasmoro (1.93 t ha-1) and Deja-2 (2.02 t ha-1).

Identification of bZIP Transcription Factors That Regulate the Development of Leaf Epidermal Cells in Arabidopsis thaliana by Single-Cell RNA Sequencing

Epidermal cells are the main avenue for signal and material exchange between plants and the environment. Leaf epidermal cells primarily include pavement cells, guard cells, and trichome cells. The development and distribution of different epidermal cells are tightly regulated by a complex transcriptional regulatory network mediated by phytohormones, including jasmonic acid, and transcription factors. How the fate of leaf epidermal cells is determined, however, is still largely unknown due to the diversity of cell types and the complexity of their regulation. Here, we characterized the transcriptional profiles of epidermal cells in 3-day-old true leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana using single-cell RNA sequencing. We identified two genes encoding BASIC LEUCINE-ZIPPER (bZIP) transcription factors, namely bZIP25 and bZIP53, which are highly expressed in pavement cells and early-stage meristemoid cells. Densities of pavement cells and trichome cells were found to increase and decrease, respectively, in bzip25 and bzip53 mutants, compared with wild-type plants. This trend was more pronounced in the presence of jasmonic acid, suggesting that these transcription factors regulate the development of trichome cells and pavement cells in response to jasmonic acid.

COBL7 is required for stomatal formation via regulation of cellulose deposition in Arabidopsis

As a key regulator of plant photosynthesis, water use efficiency and immunity, stomata are specialized cellular structures that adopt defined shapes. However, our knowledge about the genetic players of stomatal pore formation and stomatal morphogenesis remains limited. Forward genetic screening, positional cloning, confocal and electron microscopy, physiological and pharmacological assays were employed for isolation and characterization of mutants and genes. We identified a mutant, dsm1, with impaired cytokinesis and deformed stomata. DSM1 is highly expressed in guard mother cells and guard cells, and encodes COBRA-LIKE 7 (COBL7), a plant-specific glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored protein. COBRA-LIKE 7 and its closest homologue, COBL8, are first enriched on the forming cell plates during cytokinesis, and then their subcellular distribution and abundance change are correlated with the progressive stages of stomatal pore formation. Both COBL7 and COBL8 possess an ability to bind cellulose. Perturbing the expression of COBL7 and COBL8 leads to a decrease in cellulose content and inhibition of stomatal pore development. Moreover, we found that COBL7, COBL8 and CSLD5 have synergistic effects on stomatal development and plant growth. Our findings reveal that COBL7 plays a predominant and functionally redundant role with COBL8 in stomatal formation through regulating cellulose deposition and ventral wall modification in Arabidopsis.

Comprehensive and quantitative analysis of intracellular structure polarization at the apical-basal axis in elongating Arabidopsis zygotes

A comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of multiple intracellular structures or proteins is a promising approach to provide a deeper understanding of and new insights into cellular polarity. In this study, we developed an image analysis pipeline to obtain intensity profiles of fluorescent probes along the apical-basal axis in elongating Arabidopsis thaliana zygotes based on two-photon live-cell imaging data. This technique showed the intracellular distribution of actin filaments, mitochondria, microtubules, and vacuolar membranes along the apical-basal axis in elongating zygotes from the onset of cell elongation to just before asymmetric cell division. Hierarchical cluster analysis of the quantitative data on intracellular distribution revealed that the zygote may be compartmentalized into two parts, with a boundary located 43.6% from the cell tip, immediately after fertilization. To explore the biological significance of this compartmentalization, we examined the positions of the asymmetric cell divisions from the dataset used in this distribution analysis. We found that the cell division plane was reproducibly inserted 20.5% from the cell tip. This position corresponded well with the midpoint of the compartmentalized apical region, suggesting a potential relationship between the zygote compartmentalization, which begins with cell elongation, and the position of the asymmetric cell division.

The stomatal fates: Understanding initiation and enforcement of stomatal cell fate transitions

In the stomatal lineage, repeated arcs of initiation, stem-cell proliferation, and terminal cell fate commitment are displayed on the surface of aerial organs. Over the past two decades, the core transcription and signaling elements that guide cell divisions, patterning, and fate transitions were defined. Here we highlight recent work that extends the core using a variety of cutting-edge techniques in different plant species. New work has discovered transcriptional circuits that initiate and reinforce stomatal fate transitions, while also enabling the lineage to interpret and respond to environmental inputs. Recent developments show that some key stomatal factors are more flexible or potentially even interchangeable, opening up avenues to explore stomatal fates and regulatory networks.

Beyond skin-deep: targeting the plant surface for crop improvement

The above-ground plant surface is a well-adapted tissue layer that acts as an interface between the plant and its surrounding environment. As such, its primary role is to protect against desiccation and maintain the gaseous exchange required for photosynthesis. Further, this surface layer provides a barrier against pathogens and herbivory, while attracting pollinators and agents of seed dispersal. In the context of agriculture, the plant surface is strongly linked to post-harvest crop quality and yield. The epidermal layer contains several unique cell types adapted for these functions, while the non-lignified above-ground plant organs are covered by a hydrophobic cuticular membrane. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying crop cuticle and epidermal cell formation, with focus placed on genetic elements contributing towards quality, yield, drought tolerance, herbivory defence, pathogen resistance, pollinator attraction, and sterility, while highlighting the inter-relatedness of plant surface development and traits. Potential crop improvement strategies utilizing this knowledge are outlined in the context of the recent development of new breeding techniques.

Rotating Stomata Measurement Based on Anchor-Free Object Detection and Stomata Conductance Calculation

Stomata play an essential role in regulating water and carbon dioxide levels in plant leaves, which is important for photosynthesis. Previous deep learning-based plant stomata detection methods are based on horizontal detection. The detection anchor boxes of deep learning model are horizontal, while the angle of stomata is randomized, so it is not possible to calculate stomata traits directly from the detection anchor boxes. Additional processing of image (e.g., rotating image) is required before detecting stomata and calculating stomata traits. This paper proposes a novel approach, named DeepRSD (deep learning-based rotating stomata detection), for detecting rotating stomata and calculating stomata basic traits at the same time. Simultaneously, the stomata conductance loss function is introduced in the DeepRSD model training, which improves the efficiency of stomata detection and conductance calculation. The experimental results demonstrate that the DeepRSD model reaches 94.3% recognition accuracy for stomata of maize leaf. The proposed method can help researchers conduct large-scale studies on stomata morphology, structure, and stomata conductance models.

How metabolism and development are intertwined in space and time

Developmental transitions, occurring throughout the life cycle of plants, require precise regulation of metabolic processes to generate the energy and resources necessary for the committed growth processes. In parallel, the establishment of new cells, tissues, and even organs, alongside their differentiation provoke profound changes in metabolism. It is increasingly being recognized that there is a certain degree of feedback regulation between the components and products of metabolic pathways and developmental regulators. The generation of large-scale metabolomics datasets during developmental transitions, in combination with molecular genetic approaches has helped to further our knowledge on the functional importance of metabolic regulation of development. In this perspective article, we provide insights into studies that elucidate interactions between metabolism and development at the temporal and spatial scales. We additionally discuss how this influences cell growth-related processes. We also highlight how metabolic intermediates function as signaling molecules to direct plant development in response to changing internal and external conditions.

AGAMOUS mediates timing of guard cell formation during gynoecium development

In Arabidopsis thaliana, stomata are composed of two guard cells that control the aperture of a central pore to facilitate gas exchange between the plant and its environment, which is particularly important during photosynthesis. Although leaves are the primary photosynthetic organs of flowering plants, floral organs are also photosynthetically active. In the Brassicaceae, evidence suggests that silique photosynthesis is important for optimal seed oil content. A group of transcription factors containing MADS DNA binding domains is necessary and sufficient to confer floral organ identity. Elegant models, such as the ABCE model of flower development and the floral quartet model, have been instrumental in describing the molecular mechanisms by which these floral organ identity proteins govern flower development. However, we lack a complete understanding of how the floral organ identity genes interact with the underlying leaf development program. Here, we show that the MADS domain transcription factor AGAMOUS (AG) represses stomatal development on the gynoecial valves, so that maturation of stomatal complexes coincides with fertilization. We present evidence that this regulation by AG is mediated by direct transcriptional repression of a master regulator of the stomatal lineage, MUTE, and show data that suggests this interaction is conserved among several members of the Brassicaceae. This work extends our understanding of the mechanisms underlying floral organ formation and provides a framework to decipher the mechanisms that control floral organ photosynthesis.

Stomatal development and orientation: a phylogenetic and ecophysiological perspective

BACKGROUND

Oriented patterning of epidermal cells is achieved primarily by transverse protodermal cell divisions perpendicular to the organ axis, followed by axial cell elongation. In linear leaves with parallel venation, most stomata are regularly aligned with the veins. This longitudinal patterning operates under a strong developmental constraint and has demonstrable physiological benefits, especially in grasses. However, transversely oriented stomata characterize a few groups, among both living angiosperms and extinct Mesozoic seed plants.

SCOPE

This review examines comparative and developmental data on stomatal patterning in a broad phylogenetic context, focusing on the evolutionary and ecophysiological significance of guard-cell orientation. It draws from a diverse range of literature to explore the pivotal roles of the plant growth hormone auxin in establishing polarity and chemical gradients that enable cellular differentiation.

CONCLUSIONS

Transverse stomata evolved iteratively in a few seed-plant groups during the Mesozoic era, especially among parasitic or xerophytic taxa, such as the hemiparasitic mistletoe genus Viscum and the xerophytic shrub Casuarina, indicating a possible link with ecological factors such as the Cretaceous CO2 decline and changing water availability. The discovery of this feature in some extinct seed-plant taxa known only from fossils could represent a useful phylogenetic marker.

Regulation of hair cell and stomatal size by a hair cell-specific peroxidase in the grass Brachypodium distachyon

The leaf epidermis is the outermost cell layer forming the interface between plants and the atmosphere that must both provide a robust barrier against (a)biotic stressors and facilitate carbon dioxide uptake and leaf transpiration.¹ To achieve these opposing requirements, the plant epidermis developed a wide range of specialized cell types such as stomata and hair cells. Although factors forming these individual cell types are known,^2,3,4,5 it is poorly understood how their number and size are coordinated. Here, we identified a role for BdPRX76/BdPOX, a class III peroxidase, in regulating hair cell and stomatal size in the model grass Brachypodium distachyon. In bdpox mutants, prickle hair cells were smaller and stomata were longer. Because stomatal density remained unchanged, the negative correlation between stomatal size and density was disrupted in bdpox and resulted in higher stomatal conductance and lower intrinsic water-use efficiency. BdPOX was exclusively expressed in hair cells, suggesting that BdPOX cell-autonomously promotes hair cell size and indirectly restricts stomatal length. Cell-wall autofluorescence and lignin stainings indicated a role for BdPOX in the lignification or crosslinking of related phenolic compounds at the hair cell base. Ectopic expression of BdPOX in the stomatal lineage increased phenolic autofluorescence in guard cell (GC) walls and restricted stomatal elongation in bdpox. Together, we highlight a developmental interplay between hair cells and stomata that optimizes epidermal functionality. We propose that cell-type-specific changes disrupt this interplay and lead to compensatory developmental defects in other epidermal cell types.

The eINTACT system dissects bacterial exploitation of plant osmosignalling to enhance virulence

Bacteria inject effector proteins into host cells to manipulate cellular processes that promote disease. Since bacteria deliver minuscule amounts of effectors only into targeted host cells, it is technically challenging to capture effector-dependent cellular changes from bulk-infected host tissues. Here, we report a new technique called effector-inducible isolation of nuclei tagged in specific cell types (eINTACT), which facilitates affinity-based purification of nuclei from Arabidopsis plant cells that have received Xanthomonas bacterial effectors. Analysis of purified nuclei reveals that the Xanthomonas effector XopD manipulates the expression of Arabidopsis abscisic acid signalling-related genes and activates OSCA1.1, a gene encoding a calcium-permeable channel required for stomatal closure in response to osmotic stress. The loss of OSCA1.1 causes leaf wilting and reduced bacterial growth in infected leaves, suggesting that OSCA1.1 promotes host susceptibility. eINTACT allows us to uncover that XopD exploits host OSCA1.1/abscisic acid osmosignalling-mediated stomatal closure to create a humid habitat that favours bacterial growth and opens up a new avenue for accurately elucidating functions of effectors from numerous gram-negative plant bacteria in native infection contexts.

Stomata in Close Contact: The Case of Pancratium maritimum L. (Amaryllidaceae)

A special feature found in Amaryllidaceae is that some guard cells of the neighboring stomata form a "connection strand" between their dorsal cell walls. In the present work, this strand was studied in terms of both its composition and its effect on the morphology and function of the stomata in Pancratium maritimum L. leaves. The structure of stomata and their connection strand were studied by light and transmission electron microscopy. FM 4-64 and aniline blue staining and application of tannic acid were performed to detect cell membranes, callose, and pectins, respectively. A plasmolysis experiment was also performed. The composition of the connection strand was analyzed by fluorescence microscopy after immunostaining with several cell-wall-related antibodies, while pectinase treatment was applied to confirm the presence of pectins in the connection strand. To examine the effect of this connection on stomatal function, several morphological characteristics (width, length, size, pore aperture, stomatal distance, and cell size of the intermediate pavement cell) were studied. It is suggested that the connecting strand consists of cell wall material laid through the middle of the intermediate pavement cell adjoining the two stomata. These cell wall strands are mainly comprised of pectins, and crystalline cellulose and extensins were also present. Connected stomata do not open like the single stomata do, indicating that the connection strand could also affect stomatal function. This trait is common to other Amaryllidaceae representatives.

The Arabidopsis Rab protein RABC1 affects stomatal development by regulating lipid droplet dynamics

Lipid droplets (LDs) are evolutionarily conserved organelles that serve as hubs of cellular lipid and energy metabolism in virtually all organisms. Mobilization of LDs is important in light-induced stomatal opening. However, whether and how LDs are involved in stomatal development remains unknown. We show here that Arabidopsis thaliana LIPID DROPLETS AND STOMATA 1 (LDS1)/RABC1 (At1g43890) encodes a member of the Rab GTPase family that is involved in regulating LD dynamics and stomatal morphogenesis. The expression of RABC1 is coordinated with the different phases of stomatal development. RABC1 targets to the surface of LDs in response to oleic acid application in a RABC1GEF1-dependent manner. RABC1 physically interacts with SEIPIN2/3, two orthologues of mammalian seipin, which function in the formation of LDs. Disruption of RABC1, RABC1GEF1, or SEIPIN2/3 resulted in aberrantly large LDs, severe defects in guard cell vacuole morphology, and stomatal function. In conclusion, these findings reveal an aspect of LD function and uncover a role for lipid metabolism in stomatal development in plants.

Conserved signalling components coordinate epidermal patterning and cuticle deposition in barley

Faced with terrestrial threats, land plants seal their aerial surfaces with a lipid-rich cuticle. To breathe, plants interrupt their cuticles with adjustable epidermal pores, called stomata, that regulate gas exchange, and develop other specialised epidermal cells such as defensive hairs. Mechanisms coordinating epidermal features remain poorly understood. Addressing this, we studied two loci whose allelic variation causes both cuticular wax-deficiency and misarranged stomata in barley, identifying the underlying genes, Cer-g/ HvYDA1, encoding a YODA-like (YDA) MAPKKK, and Cer-s/ HvBRX-Solo, encoding a single BREVIS-RADIX (BRX) domain protein. Both genes control cuticular integrity, the spacing and identity of epidermal cells, and barley's distinctive epicuticular wax blooms, as well as stomatal patterning in elevated CO₂ conditions. Genetic analyses revealed epistatic and modifying relationships between HvYDA1 and HvBRX-Solo, intimating that their products participate in interacting pathway(s) linking epidermal patterning with cuticular properties in barley. This may represent a mechanism for coordinating multiple adaptive features of the land plant epidermis in a cultivated cereal.

Biogenesis of post-translationally modified peptide signals for plant reproductive development

Post-translationally modified peptides (PMPs) are important regulators of plant growth and development. They are derived from larger inactive precursors by post-translational modification (PTM) and proteolytic processing to result in the bioactive peptide signals. We discuss how and why these modifications contribute to the bioactivity of inflorescence deficient in abscission (IDA), phytosulfokine (PSK), and peptides of the Casparian strip integrity factor (CIF) family, as signaling molecules during reproductive development. The emerging picture suggests that PTMs evolved to increase the specificity of interaction of PMPs with cognate receptors and of PMP precursors with processing proteases. Cleavage sites in PMP precursors are recognized by subtilases (SBTs) in a highly specific manner. SBT-mediated processing results in the activation of PMP signals regulating stress-induced flower drop, the formation of the embryonic cuticle, and pollen development.

Stomatal morphological variation contributes to global ecological adaptation and diversification of Brassica napus

Stomatal density and guard cell length of 274 global core germplasms of rapeseed reveal that the stomatal morphological variation contributes to global ecological adaptation and diversification of Brassica napus. Stomata are microscopic structures of plants for the regulation of CO₂ assimilation and transpiration. Stomatal morphology has changed substantially in the adaptation to the external environment during land plant evolution. Brassica napus is a major crop to produce oil, livestock feed and biofuel in the world. However, there are few studies on the regulatory genes controlling stomatal development and their interaction with environmental factors as well as the genetic mechanism of adaptive variation in B. napus. Here, we characterized stomatal density (SD) and guard cell length (GL) of 274 global core germplasms at seedling stage. It was found that among the significant phenotypic variation, European germplasms are mostly winter rapeseed with high stomatal density and small guard cell length. However, the germplasms from Asia (especially China) are semi-winter rapeseed, which is characterized by low stomatal density and large guard cell length. Through selective sweep analysis and homology comparison, we identified several candidate genes related to stomatal density and guard cell length, including Epidermal Patterning Factor2 (EPF2; BnaA09g23140D), Epidermal Patterning Factor Like4 (EPFL4; BnaC01g22890D) and Suppressor of LLP1 (SOL1 BnaC01g22810D). Haplotype and phylogenetic analysis showed that natural variation in EPF2, EPFL4 and SOL1 is closely associated with the winter, spring, and semi-winter rapeseed ecotypes. In summary, this study demonstrated for the first time the relation between stomatal phenotypic variation and ecological adaptation in rapeseed, which is useful for future molecular breeding of rapeseed in the context of evolution and domestication of key stomatal traits and global climate change.

Cell type-specific dynamics underlie cellular growth variability in plants

Coordination of growth, patterning and differentiation is required for shaping organs in multicellular organisms. In plants, cell growth is controlled by positional information, yet the behavior of individual cells is often highly heterogeneous. The origin of this variability is still unclear. Using time-lapse imaging, we determined the source and relevance of cellular growth variability in developing organs of Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that growth is more heterogeneous in the leaf blade than in the midrib and petiole, correlating with higher local differences in growth rates between neighboring cells in the blade. This local growth variability coincides with developing stomata. Stomatal lineages follow a specific, time-dependent growth program that is different from that of their surroundings. Quantification of cellular dynamics in the leaves of a mutant lacking stomata, as well as analysis of floral organs, supports the idea that growth variability is mainly driven by stomata differentiation. Thus, the cell-autonomous behavior of specialized cells is the main source of local growth variability in otherwise homogeneously growing tissue. Those growth differences are buffered by the immediate neighbors of stomata and trichomes to achieve robust organ shapes.

Cell biology of the leaf epidermis: Fate specification, morphogenesis, and coordination

As the outermost layer of plants, the epidermis serves as a critical interface between plants and the environment. During leaf development, the differentiation of specialized epidermal cell types, including stomatal guard cells, pavement cells, and trichomes, occurs simultaneously, each providing unique and pivotal functions for plant growth and survival. Decades of molecular-genetic and physiological studies have unraveled key players and hormone signaling specifying epidermal differentiation. However, most studies focus on only one cell type at a time, and how these distinct cell types coordinate as a unit is far from well-comprehended. Here we provide a review on the current knowledge of regulatory mechanisms underpinning the fate specification, differentiation, morphogenesis, and positioning of these specialized cell types. Emphasis is given to their shared developmental origins, fate flexibility, as well as cell cycle and hormonal controls. Furthermore, we discuss computational modeling approaches to integrate how mechanical properties of individual epidermal cell types and entire tissue/organ properties mutually influence each other. We hope to illuminate the underlying mechanisms coordinating the cell differentiation that ultimately generate a functional leaf epidermis.

Stomatal development and genetic expression in Arabidopsis thaliana L

Stomata are turgor-driven microscopic epidermal valves of land plants. The controlled opening and closing of the valves are essential for regulating the gas exchange and minimizing the water loss and eventually regulating the internal temperatures. Stomata are also a major site of pathogen/microbe entry and plant defense system. Maintaining proper stomatal density, distribution, and development are pivotal for plant survival. Arabidopsis is a model plant to study molecular basis including signaling pathways, transcription factors, and key components for the growth and development of specific organs as well as the whole plant. It has intensively been studied and found out the driver for the development and patterning of stomata. In this review, we have explained how the MAPK signaling cascade is controlled by TOO MANY MOUTHS (TMM) receptor-like protein and the Erecta (ER) receptor-like kinase family. We have also summarized how this MAPK cascade affects primary transcriptional regulators to finally activate the main three basic Helix-Loop-Helix (bHLH) principal transcription factors, which are required for the development and patterning of stomata. Moreover, regulatory activity and cellular connections of polar proteins and environmentally mediated ligand-receptor interactions in the stomatal developmental pathways have extensively been discussed in this review.

Stomatal Lineage Control by Developmental Program and Environmental Cues

Stomata are micropores that allow plants to breathe and play a critical role in photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by regulating gas exchange and transpiration. Stomatal development, therefore, is optimized for survival and growth of the plant despite variable environmental conditions. Signaling cascades and transcriptional networks that determine the birth, proliferation, and differentiation of a stomate have been identified. These networks ensure proper stomatal patterning, density, and polarity. Environmental cues also influence stomatal development. In this review, we highlight recent findings regarding the developmental program governing cell fate and dynamics of stomatal lineage cells at the cell state- or single-cell level. We also overview the control of stomatal development by environmental cues as well as developmental plasticity associated with stomatal function and physiology. Recent advances in our understanding of stomatal development will provide a route to improving photosynthesis and water-stress resilience of crop plants in the climate change we currently face.