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Expression of Cyclooxygenase-2 in Human Epithelial Skin Lesions: A Systematic Review of Immunohistochemical Studies. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 2020; 29:163-174. [PMID: 32889812 DOI: 10.1097/pai.0000000000000871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Permanent, elevated expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in keratinocytes of epidermis can stimulate its hyperplasia and constitute a factor promoting cancer development, as demonstrated in animal models. Intratumoral level and localization of COX-2 in epithelial lesions of human skin was examined immunohistochemically in 26 studies. In squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs), strong staining was observed with great compatibility. High COX-2 detectability throughout the entire tumor mass could be helpful in the finding of SCC cells. However, in basal cell carcinomas, and precancerous lesions, frequency and detection level of this protein, as well as the type and/or localization of stained cells within the tumor, varied among different research groups. The discrepancies may be due to the heterogeneity of each of these 2 groups of lesions. However, differences in COX-2 staining in normal skin indicate also possible methodological reasons. In general, COX-2 levels were significantly decreased in basal cell carcinomas compared with SCCs, which could be used in the differential diagnosis of these cancers. Reduced, although heterogenous, COX-2 expression in precancerous lesions may suggest its association with SCC development. These observations are consistent with data on the efficacy of preventive and therapeutic effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs that are COX-2 inhibitors.
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Che D, Zhang S, Jing Z, Shang L, Jin S, Liu F, Shen J, Li Y, Hu J, Meng Q, Yu Y. Macrophages induce EMT to promote invasion of lung cancer cells through the IL-6-mediated COX-2/PGE 2/β-catenin signalling pathway. Mol Immunol 2017; 90:197-210. [PMID: 28837884 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2017.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 05/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Infiltration of macrophages plays a critical role in the connection between inflammation and cancer invasion; however, the molecular mechanism that enables this crosstalk remains unclear. This paper investigates a molecular link between infiltration of macrophages and metastasis of lung cancer cells. In this study, the macrophage density and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein were examined in surgical specimens by immunohistochemistry (IHC), and the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels were determined in the blood of 30 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We demonstrated that macrophage infiltration was significantly associated with elevated tumour COX-2 expression and serum PGE2 levels in NSCLC patients. Interestingly, the COX-2 and PGE2 levels as well as macrophages were poor predictors of NSCLC patient survival. THP-1-derived macrophages were co-cultured in vitro with A549 and H1299 lung cancer cells. In the co-culture process, interleukin-6 (IL-6) induced the COX-2/PGE2 pathway in lung cancer cells, which subsequently promoted β-catenin translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, resulting in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and lung cancer cell invasion. Our findings show that the IL-6-dependent COX-2/PGE2 pathway induces EMT to promote invasion of tumour cells through β-catenin activation during the interaction between macrophages and lung cancer cells, which suggests that inhibition of COX-2/PGE2 or macrophages has the potential to suppress metastasis of lung cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dehai Che
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Shuai Zhang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Zihan Jing
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Lihua Shang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Shi Jin
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Fang Liu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Jing Shen
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Yue Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Jing Hu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China
| | - Qingwei Meng
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China.
| | - Yan Yu
- Department of Medical Oncology, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Haping Road 150 of Nangang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, PR China.
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Xiao Y, Wang J, Qin Y, Xuan Y, Jia Y, Hu W, Yu W, Dai M, Li Z, Yi C, Zhao S, Li M, Du S, Cheng W, Xiao X, Chen Y, Wu T, Meng S, Yuan Y, Liu Q, Huang W, Guo W, Wang S, Deng W. Ku80 cooperates with CBP to promote COX-2 expression and tumor growth. Oncotarget 2016; 6:8046-61. [PMID: 25797267 PMCID: PMC4480734 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) plays an important role in lung cancer development and progression. Using streptavidin-agarose pulldown and proteomics assay, we identified and validated Ku80, a dimer of Ku participating in the repair of broken DNA double strands, as a new binding protein of the COX-2 gene promoter. Overexpression of Ku80 up-regulated COX-2 promoter activation and COX-2 expression in lung cancer cells. Silencing of Ku80 by siRNA down-regulated COX-2 expression and inhibited tumor cell growth in vitro and in a xenograft mouse model. Ku80 knockdown suppressed phosphorylation of ERK, resulting in an inactivation of the MAPK pathway. Moreover, CBP, a transcription co-activator, interacted with and acetylated Ku80 to co-regulate the activation of COX-2 promoter. Overexpression of CBP increased Ku80 acetylation, thereby promoting COX-2 expression and cell growth. Suppression of CBP by a CBP-specific inhibitor or siRNA inhibited COX-2 expression as well as tumor cell growth. Tissue microarray immunohistochemical analysis of lung adenocarcinomas revealed a strong positive correlation between levels of Ku80 and COX-2 and clinicopathologic variables. Overexpression of Ku80 was associated with poor prognosis in patients with lung cancers. We conclude that Ku80 promotes COX-2 expression and tumor growth and is a potential therapeutic target in lung cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Xiao
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Jingshu Wang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yu Qin
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yang Xuan
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yunlu Jia
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wenxian Hu
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Wendan Yu
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Meng Dai
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Zhenglin Li
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Canhui Yi
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Shilei Zhao
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Mei Li
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Sha Du
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Wei Cheng
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Xiangsheng Xiao
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yiming Chen
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Taihua Wu
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Songshu Meng
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Yuhui Yuan
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Quentin Liu
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenlin Huang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Targeted Drug for Tumors of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Double Bioproduct Inc., Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Guo
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
| | - Shusen Wang
- Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wuguo Deng
- Institute of Cancer Stem Cell & First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.,Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Collaborative Innovation Center of Cancer Medicine, Guangzhou, China.,State Key Laboratory of Targeted Drug for Tumors of Guangdong Province, Guangzhou Double Bioproduct Inc., Guangzhou, China
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Kiraly AJ, Soliman E, Jenkins A, Van Dross RT. Apigenin inhibits COX-2, PGE2, and EP1 and also initiates terminal differentiation in the epidermis of tumor bearing mice. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2016; 104:44-53. [PMID: 26802941 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2015.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) is the most prevalent cancer in the United States. NMSC overexpresses cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). COX-2 synthesizes prostaglandins such as PGE2 which promote proliferation and tumorigenesis by engaging G-protein-coupled prostaglandin E receptors (EP). Apigenin is a bioflavonoid that blocks mouse skin tumorigenesis induced by the chemical carcinogens, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). However, the effect of apigenin on the COX-2 pathway has not been examined in the DMBA/TPA skin tumor model. In the present study, apigenin decreased tumor multiplicity and incidence in DMBA/TPA-treated SKH-1 mice. Analysis of the non-tumor epidermis revealed that apigenin reduced COX-2, PGE2, EP1, and EP2 synthesis and also increased terminal differentiation. In contrast, apigenin did not inhibit the COX-2 pathway or promote terminal differentiation in the tumors. Since fewer tumors developed in apigenin-treated animals which contained reduced epidermal COX-2 levels, our data suggest that apigenin may avert skin tumor development by blocking COX-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex J Kiraly
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Eman Soliman
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Audrey Jenkins
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Rukiyah T Van Dross
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA.
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Jiao J, Ishikawa TO, Dumlao DS, Norris PC, Magyar CE, Mikulec C, Catapang A, Dennis EA, Fischer SM, Herschman HR. Targeted deletion and lipidomic analysis identify epithelial cell COX-2 as a major driver of chemically induced skin cancer. Mol Cancer Res 2014; 12:1677-88. [PMID: 25063587 PMCID: PMC4233191 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-14-0397-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Pharmacologic and global gene deletion studies demonstrate that cyclooxygenase-2 (PTGS2/COX-2) plays a critical role in DMBA/TPA-induced skin tumor induction. Although many cell types in the tumor microenvironment express COX-2, the cell types in which COX-2 expression is required for tumor promotion are not clearly established. Here, cell type-specific Cox-2 gene deletion reveals a vital role for skin epithelial cell COX-2 expression in DMBA/TPA tumor induction. In contrast, myeloid Cox-2 gene deletion has no effect on DMBA/TPA tumorigenesis. The infrequent, small tumors that develop on mice with an epithelial cell-specific Cox-2 gene deletion have decreased proliferation and increased cell differentiation properties. Blood vessel density is reduced in tumors with an epithelial cell-specific Cox-2 gene deletion, compared with littermate control tumors, suggesting a reciprocal relationship in tumor progression between COX-2-expressing tumor epithelial cells and microenvironment endothelial cells. Lipidomics analysis of skin and tumors from DMBA/TPA-treated mice suggests that the prostaglandins PGE2 and PGF2α are likely candidates for the epithelial cell COX-2-dependent eicosanoids that mediate tumor progression. This study both illustrates the value of cell type-specific gene deletions in understanding the cellular roles of signal-generating pathways in complex microenvironments and emphasizes the benefit of a systems-based lipidomic analysis approach to identify candidate lipid mediators of biologic responses. IMPLICATIONS Cox-2 gene deletion demonstrates that intrinsic COX-2 expression in initiated keratinocytes is a principal driver of skin carcinogenesis; lipidomic analysis identifies likely prostanoid effectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Jiao
- Departments of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California. Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Tomo-O Ishikawa
- Departments of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California. Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Darren S Dumlao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California. Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Paul C Norris
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California. Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Clara E Magyar
- Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Carol Mikulec
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park, Smithville, Texas
| | - Art Catapang
- Departments of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California. Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Edward A Dennis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California. Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Susan M Fischer
- University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Science Park, Smithville, Texas
| | - Harvey R Herschman
- Departments of Molecular & Medical Pharmacology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California. Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California.
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Dotto GP. Multifocal epithelial tumors and field cancerization: stroma as a primary determinant. J Clin Invest 2014; 124:1446-53. [PMID: 24691479 DOI: 10.1172/jci72589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly evident that cancer results from altered organ homeostasis rather than from deregulated control of single cells or groups of cells. This applies especially to epithelial cancer, the most common form of human solid tumors and a major cause of cancer lethality. In the vast majority of cases, in situ epithelial cancer lesions do not progress into malignancy, even if they harbor many of the genetic changes found in invasive and metastatic tumors. While changes in tumor stroma are frequently viewed as secondary to changes in the epithelium, recent evidence indicates that they can play a primary role in both cancer progression and initiation. These processes may explain the phenomenon of field cancerization, i.e., the occurrence of multifocal and recurrent epithelial tumors that are preceded by and associated with widespread changes of surrounding tissue or organ "fields."
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Jiao J, Mikulec C, Ishikawa TO, Magyar C, Dumlao DS, Dennis EA, Fischer SM, Herschman H. Cell-type-specific roles for COX-2 in UVB-induced skin cancer. Carcinogenesis 2014; 35:1310-9. [PMID: 24469308 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgu020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In human tumors, and in mouse models, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) levels are frequently correlated with tumor development/burden. In addition to intrinsic tumor cell expression, COX-2 is often present in fibroblasts, myofibroblasts and endothelial cells of the tumor microenvironment, and in infiltrating immune cells. Intrinsic cancer cell COX-2 expression is postulated as only one of many sources for prostanoids required for tumor promotion/progression. Although both COX-2 inhibition and global Cox-2 gene deletion ameliorate ultraviolet B (UVB)-induced SKH-1 mouse skin tumorigenesis, neither manipulation can elucidate the cell type(s) in which COX-2 expression is required for tumorigenesis; both eliminate COX-2 activity in all cells. To address this question, we created Cox-2(flox/flox) mice, in which the Cox-2 gene can be eliminated in a cell-type-specific fashion by targeted Cre recombinase expression. Cox-2 deletion in skin epithelial cells of SKH-1 Cox-2(flox/flox);K14Cre(+) mice resulted, following UVB irradiation, in reduced skin hyperplasia and increased apoptosis. Targeted epithelial cell Cox-2 deletion also resulted in reduced tumor incidence, frequency, size and proliferation rate, altered tumor cell differentiation and reduced tumor vascularization. Moreover, Cox-2(flox/flox);K14Cre(+) papillomas did not progress to squamous cell carcinomas. In contrast, Cox-2 deletion in SKH-1 Cox-2(flox/flox); LysMCre(+) myeloid cells had no effect on UVB tumor induction. We conclude that (i) intrinsic epithelial COX-2 activity plays a major role in UVB-induced skin cancer, (ii) macrophage/myeloid COX-2 plays no role in UVB-induced skin cancer and (iii) either there may be another COX-2-dependent prostanoid source(s) that drives UVB skin tumor induction or there may exist a COX-2-independent pathway(s) to UVB-induced skin cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Jiao
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Carol Mikulec
- Department of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Science Park, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Smithville, TX 78957, USA
| | - Tomo-o Ishikawa
- Division of Genetics, Cancer Research Institute, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan
| | - Clara Magyar
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA and
| | - Darren S Dumlao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Edward A Dennis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Susan M Fischer
- Department of Molecular Carcinogenesis, Science Park, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Smithville, TX 78957, USA
| | - Harvey Herschman
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology and Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA,
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Norris PC, Dennis EA. A lipidomic perspective on inflammatory macrophage eicosanoid signaling. Adv Biol Regul 2013; 54:99-110. [PMID: 24113376 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbior.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2013] [Revised: 09/15/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are central to essential physiological processes including the regulation of innate and adaptive immunity, but they are also central to a number of inflammatory disease states. These immune cells also possess remarkable plasticity and display various shades of functionalities based on changes in the surrounding molecular environment. Macrophage biology has defined various phenotypes and roles in inflammation based primarily on cytokine and chemokine profiles of cells in different activation states. Importantly, macrophages are elite producers of eicosanoids and other related lipid mediators during inflammation, but specific roles of these molecules have not generally been incorporated into the larger context of macrophage biology. In this review, we discuss the current classification of macrophage types and their roles in inflammation and disease, along with the practical challenges of studying biologically relevant phenotypes ex vivo. Using the latest advances in eicosanoid lipidomics, we highlight several key studies from our laboratory that provide a comprehensive understanding of how eicosanoid metabolism differs between macrophage phenotypes, along with how this metabolism is altered by changes in membrane fatty acid distribution and varied durations of Toll-like receptor (TLR) priming. In conclusion, we summarize several examples of the benefit of macrophage plasticity to develop accurate cellular mechanisms of lipid metabolism, and insights from lipidomic analyses about the differences in eicosanoid pathway enzyme activity in vitro vs. in cells ex vivo. Examples of new techniques to further understand the role of macrophage eicosanoid signaling in vivo are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul C Norris
- Departments of Chemistry/Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0601, USA
| | - Edward A Dennis
- Departments of Chemistry/Biochemistry and Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0601, USA.
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