Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in chronic kidney disease: a systematic review of prescription practices and use in primary care

The prevalence and contributing factors of NSAIDs prescription among chronic kidney disease patients in primary care: a mixed methods study from Kingdom of Bahrain

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) prescription and its contributory factors among chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients are unknown in the Kingdom of Bahrain - though NSAIDs are known to cause significant renal impairment. This study will determine the prevalence of NSAIDs prescription among CKD patients and the contributory factors to this behavior from the perspective of primary care physicians in Bahrain.

METHODOLOGY

A sequential mixed-method design study comprising of a retrospective cross-sectional survey drawn from patients' electronic medical records (EMR) and qualitative in-depth interviews with primary care physicians (PCPs) was conducted between December 2022 and January 2023 - with an EMR data lookback from 1 st June 2021 to 1 st June 2022 Quantitative descriptive analysis was conducted to estimate the prevalence of NSAIDs and their associations with sociodemographic and service delivery indicators. An Ishikawa diagram was used to describe contributory factors to NSAID prescription among CKD patients drawing from the literature and was used to guide a deductive thematic analysis of the qualitative data.

RESULT

Of the enrolled CKD patient population (4,380 patients), 17.4% had at least one inappropriate NSAID prescription. 80% of these patients had moderate renal impairment, while 19.3% had severe impairment. Most of the prescriptions were in 24-h health centers (48.5%). A Bivariate relationship between the prescription and the sociodemographic factors showed a significant P value regarding age (P-value 0.008*) and the severity of the renal impairment (P-value < 0.001*). The contributory factors were divided into five themes: patient factors, physician factors, health team factors, I SEHA factors and system factors. Of these themes, patients and PCPs were identified by the primary care physicians as some of the most important reasons for NSAIDs prescription among CKD patients.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of NSAIDs prescription among CKD patients is relatively high in the kingdom of Bahrain - largely due to patient and physician factors as identified by primary care physicians. Possible solutions for addressing these factors include raising awareness among patients, PCPs, and other healthcare workers and activating the Swiss Cheese Model that involves patients, PCPs, and other health team members to ensure appropriate medication practice and patients' safety.

NSAID use may decrease serum Klotho levels

Objective

To validate the hypothesis proposed by previous studies, which suggests that NSAID use may elevate Klotho levels.

Method

We conducted a cross-sectional study involving 11,626 adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2007-2016. Multivariable linear regression and propensity score analysis were employed to evaluate the association between NSAID use and serum Klotho levels. Additionally, subgroup analyses were performed to assess the consistency of this relationship across various subgroups.

Results

Multivariable linear regression analysis demonstrated that NSAID use was negatively correlated with serum Klotho levels (β = -25.48 [95% CI: -42.00, -8.96], p = 0.003). Additionally, sensitivity analysis results were consistent with the primary analysis. Subgroup analyses did not reveal any statistically significant interactions.

Conclusion

Contrary to previous speculations, the use of NSAIDs is associated with a decrease in serum Klotho levels.

Impact of prolonged use of NSAID (Diclofenac) on 99mTc-MAG3 and 99mTc-DTPA renography

BACKGROUND

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as diclofenac, are globally recognized as the primary choice for alleviating kidney pain and ureteric colic. This study examines the effects of long-term diclofenac administration on renography using two radiopharmaceuticals: 99mTc-mercaptoacetyltriglycine (99mTc-MAG3), which is excreted almost exclusively by the renal tubules, and 99mTc-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (99mTc-DTPA), which is predominantly excreted by glomerular filtration.

RESULTS

Diclofenac administration caused a rightward shift in renograms, indicating delayed renal uptake and clearance for both tracers. For 99mTc-MAG3, the average time to peak activity (Tmax) increased from 2.88 ± 0.3 min (control) to 4.2 ± 0.3 min (treated), while time from peak to 50% activity (T½) rose from 4.16 ± 0.1 min to 5.48 ± 0.5 min. For 99mTc-DTPA, Tmax increased from 4.3 ± 0.4 min to 12.9 ± 2.0 min, and T½ extended from 13.35 ± 1.5 min to 29.75 ± 2.0 min (n = 12; *p < 0.05 for all comparisons). Delayed tracer arrival in the bladder was particularly pronounced with 99mTc-DTPA.

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic diclofenac exposure significantly delays Tmax and T½ for both tracers, with a greater impact observed using 99mTc-DTPA. These findings highlight 99mTc-MAG3 as the preferred radiopharmaceutical for renography in settings involving long-term NSAID administration, ensuring accurate and reliable interpretation and minimizing variability associated with radiopharmaceutical selection.

Kidney and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Older Population with Mildly to Moderately Decreased Kidney Function: A Nationwide Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

Although the prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is increasing in the aging population, the clinical relevance of the CKD definition (glomerular filtration rate [GFR] <60 mL/min/1.73 m2) in older populations remains debatable. We investigated the clinical outcomes in older populations with mildly to moderately decreased GFR (45-59 mL/min/1.73 m2, CKD stage 3A).

METHODS

A total of 7,789,242 participants aged ≥40 years with estimated GFR (eGFR) ≥45 mL/min/1.73 m2 in national health screening examination from 2012 to 2017 were included in this retrospective cohort study using the Korean National Health Insurance Service database. The main outcomes included kidney failure, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and all-cause death. Cox regression hazard models were used to estimate the hazard ratios.

RESULTS

The proportion of participants with eGFR 45-59 mL/min/1.73 m2 was 10.0% and 16.3% in the old (65-74 years) and very old (75≥ years) groups, respectively. Mildly to moderately decreased eGFR was associated with a higher risk of kidney failure, CVD, and all-cause death compared with eGFR 60-89 mL/min/1.73 m2 in the old and very old groups, regardless of proteinuria (adjusted hazard ratio [95% confidence interval] in the very old group without proteinuria: kidney failure 3.048 [2.495-3.722], CVD 1.103 [1.066-1.142], and all-cause death 1.172 [1.144-1.201]).

CONCLUSION

Mildly to moderately decreased eGFR was associated with an increased risk of kidney failure, CVD, and all-cause death in the older population, regardless of proteinuria, suggesting the importance of appropriate monitoring and management in this population.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in chronic kidney disease and risk of acute adverse kidney events according to route of administration

BACKGROUND

Topical non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have lower risks for cardiovascular disease and gastrointestinal adverse effects compared to oral NSAIDs, but there are little data regarding their kidney risks in chronic kidney disease (CKD). We evaluated the risk of adverse acute kidney outcomes in CKD according to route of NSAID administration.

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of adults with CKD (eGFR less than 60 ml/min/1.73 m²) who received prescriptions between 2015 and 2017 from a major healthcare cluster in Singapore. The adverse acute kidney outcomes were acute kidney injury (AKI) and need for nephrology specialist consult within 30 days.

RESULTS

Among 6298 adults with CKD (mean age 72.1 ± 13.3 years and eGFR 41.9 ± 12.2 ml/min/1.73 m²), systemic and topical NSAIDs were prescribed in 16.7% and 32.0%, respectively. Incident AKI (any severity), KDIGO Stage 2 or 3 AKI, and need for nephrology specialist consult occurred in 16.7%, 2.6%, and 10.6% of the study cohort, respectively. After adjusting for age, diabetes, recent cardiovascular hospitalization, baseline eGFR, RAAS blocker and diuretic, systemic NSAIDs, and topical NSAIDs, compared with the no-NSAID group, were independently associated with incident AKI [adjusted OR 1.77 (95% CI 1.46-2.15) and 1.38 (1.18-1.63), respectively]. Moderate and severe AKI (adjusted OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.09-2.58, p = 0.02) and need for nephrology consults (adjusted OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.09-1.82, p = 0.008) were also increased in systemic NSAIDs.

CONCLUSION

Among adults with CKD, both systemic and topical NSAIDs were independently associated with acute adverse kidney outcomes.

Acute Kidney Injury in a Cohort of Critical Illness Patients Exposed to Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

To determine whether non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAIDs) exposure prior to intensive care unit (ICU) admission affects the development of acute kidney injury (AKI) with renal replacement therapy (RRT). An administrative database is used to establish a cohort of patients who were admitted to the ICU. The exposure to NSAIDs that the patients had before admission to the ICU is determined. Demographic variables, comorbidities, AKI diagnoses requiring RRT, and pneumonia during the ICU stay are also measured. Multivariate logistic regression and inverse probability weighting (IPW) are used to calculate risks of exposure to NSAIDs for patients with AKI requiring RRT. In total, 96,235 patients were admitted to the ICU, of which 16,068 (16.7%) were exposed to NSAIDs. The incidence of AKI with RRT was 2.71% for being exposed to NSAIDs versus 2.24% for those not exposed (p < 0.001). For the outcome of AKI, the odds ratio weighted with IPW was 1.28 (95% CI: 1.15−1.43), and for the outcome of pneumonia as a negative control, the odds ratio was 1.07 (95% CI: 0.98−1.17). The impact of prior exposure to NSAIDs over critically ill patients in the development of AKI is calculated as 8 patients per 1000 exposures. The negative control with the same sources of bias did not show an association with NSAID exposure.

Bridging Gaps in Diabetic Nephropathy Care: A Narrative Review Guided by the Lived Experiences of Patient Partners

Purpose of review

Diabetes affects almost a 10th of the Canadian population, and diabetic nephropathy is one of its main complications. It remains a leading cause of kidney failure despite the availability of effective treatments.

Sources of information

The sources of information are iterative discussions between health care professionals and patient partners and literature collected through the search of multiple databases.

Methods

Major pitfalls related to optimal diabetic nephropathy care were identified through discussions between patient partners and clinician researchers. We identified underlying factors that were common between pitfalls. We then conducted a narrative review of strategies to overcome them, with a focus on Canadian initiatives.

Key findings

We identified 5 pitfalls along the diabetic nephropathy trajectory, including a delay in diabetes diagnosis, suboptimal glycemic control, delay in the detection of kidney involvement, suboptimal kidney protection, and deficient management of advanced chronic kidney disease. Several innovative care models and approaches have been proposed to address these pitfalls; however, they are not consistently applied. To improve diabetic nephropathy care in Canada, we recommend focusing initiatives on improving awareness of diabetic nephropathy, improving access to timely evidence-based care, fostering inclusive patient-centered care environment, and generating new evidence that supports complex disease management. It is imperative that patients and their families are included at the center of these initiatives.

Limitations

This review was limited to research published in peer-reviewed journals. We did not perform a systematic review of the literature; we included articles that were relevant to the major pitfalls identified by our patient partners. Study quality was also not formally assessed. The combination of these factors limits the scope of our conclusions.

Management of Osteoarthritis: Expert Opinion on NSAIDs

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a leading cause of disability among older adults worldwide. Treatment aims are to alleviate inflammatory pain and improve physical function through non-pharmacological and pharmacological interventions. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are recommended as first-line therapy. However, selection is challenged by patient age, comorbidities and polypharmacy, and by the drug's benefit/risk balance, all of which together influence the risk of cardiovascular (CV), gastrointestinal (GI) and renal adverse events (AEs). While the efficacy profile of the various NSAIDs is delineated, the differences in their safety profile are not straightforward. This narrative review provides practical indications by a multidisciplinary Italian expert panel for general practitioners and specialists managing OA patients with chronic inflammatory pain; the goal is to maximize therapy efficacy while reducing untoward effects caused by inappropriate NSAID use. The discussion on the best approach to NSAIDs spanned the following topics: (1) patient evaluation: investigate pain origin, duration and components together with possible risk factors for CV, GI and renal AEs; (2) non-pharmacological interventions: the physiatrist provides a person-centered, holistic approach accounting for all patient aspects; (3) pharmacological interventions: patient profile and drugs' pharmacological properties affect NSAID selection, which drugs to be used in combination or to be avoided, formulation and therapy duration; (4) the pharmacologist's, general practitioner's and pain therapist's points of view; (5) NSAID safety: the individual baseline risk and the drug's safety profile are major determinants of CV, GI and renal risk; consider possible drug-drug interactions; (6) periodical re-evaluation of treatment response and adherence, using scales to assess pain and function.

The risk of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced heart failure in people with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review

Aim

To examine the risk of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced heart failure in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Methods

Embase, Medline, CENTRAL, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched for papers published in English between 1st January 1999 and 31st May 2020. Papers were included if some participants had chronic kidney disease, were exposed to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and where heart failure was measured as an outcome. Papers were assessed for risk of bias using the Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool for randomised controlled trials, and ROBINS-I for observational studies.

Results

A total of 2480 independent papers were retrieved. Following abstract screening, 165 full texts were reviewed to identify seven eligible papers: two randomised controlled trials, four cohort studies, and one case-control study. For chronic kidney disease (stage 3–5), relative risk for heart failure ranged from 0.3 to 1.9 with 95% confidence interval 0.04 to 15.1. Results were not pooled due to study heterogeneity. We attributed bias to heterogenous populations studied, probable confounding due to partially adjusted risk estimates, and heterogenous measurement of the heart failure outcome.

Conclusion

Overall, there are only a few studies to refute or support an increased risk of heart failure associated with taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in patients with chronic kidney disease, and therefore no robust evidence was available.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of acute adverse renal outcomes in diabetes and diabetic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Individuals with diabetes mellitus (DM) may be susceptible to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) - induced acute kidney injury (AKI) but data on NSAID-related adverse renal events is sparse. We aimed to evaluate the risk of acute kidney injury and/or hyperkalemia after systemic NSAID among individuals with DM and diabetic chronic kidney disease (CKD).

METHODS

Retrospective cohort study of 3896 adults with DM with incident prescriptions between July 2015 and December 2017 from Singapore General Hospital and SingHealth Polyclinics. Laboratory, hospitalization and medication data were retrieved from electronic medical records. The primary outcome was the incidence of AKI and/ or hyperkalemia within 30 days after prescription.

RESULTS

AKI and/or hyperkalemia occurred in 13.5% of all DM and 15.8% of diabetic CKD. The association between systemic NSAID >14 days and 30-day risk of AKI and/or hyperkalemia failed to reach statistical significance in unselected DM (adjusted OR 1.62, 95% CI 0.99-2.65, p = 0.05) and diabetic CKD (adjusted OR 0.64, 95% CI 0.15-2.82, p = 0.64), but the odds of AKI and/or hyperkalemia were markedly and significantly increased when NSAID was prescribed with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) blocker (adjusted OR 4.17, 95% CI 1.74-9.98, p = 0.001) or diuretic (adjusted OR 3.31, 95% CI 1.09-10.08, p = 0.04) and in the absence of diabetic CKD (adjusted OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.16-3.36, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSION

NSAID prescription >14 days in individuals with DM with concurrent RAAS blockers or diuretics was associated with higher 30-day risk of AKI and/or hyperkalemia.

Care of Pediatric Solid Organ Transplant Recipients: An Overview for Primary Care Providers

As the number of living pediatric solid organ transplant (SOT) recipients continues to grow, there is an increased likelihood that primary care providers (PCPs) will encounter pediatric SOT recipients in their practices. In addition, as end-stage organ failure is replaced with chronic medical conditions in transplant recipients, there is a need for a comprehensive approach to their management. PCPs can significantly enhance the care of immunosuppressed hosts by advising parents of safety considerations and avoiding adverse drug interactions. Together with subspecialty providers, PCPs are responsible for ensuring that appropriate vaccinations are given and can play an important role in the diagnosis of infections. Through early recognition of rejection and posttransplant complications, PCPs can minimize morbidity. Growth and development can be optimized through frequent assessments and timely referrals. Adherence to immunosuppressive regimens can be greatly improved through reinforcement at every encounter, particularly among adolescents. PCPs can also improve long-term outcomes by easing the transition of pediatric SOT recipients to adult providers. Although guidelines exist for the primary care management of adult SOT recipients, comprehensive guidance is lacking for pediatric providers. In this evidence-based overview, we outline the main issues affecting pediatric SOT recipients and provide guidance for PCPs regarding their management from the first encounter after the transplant to the main challenges that arise in childhood and adolescence. Overall, PCPs can and should use their expertise and serve as an additional layer of support in conjunction with the transplant center for families that are caring for a pediatric SOT recipient.

Collagen Hydrolysate Corrects Anemia in Chronic Kidney Disease via Anti-Inflammatory Renoprotection and HIF-2α-Dependent Erythropoietin and Hepcidin Regulation

Anemia is a common chronic kidney disease (CKD) complication contributing to increased morbidity and mortality. Collagen-based traditional Chinese nutraceuticals have long been used in antianemic therapies. This study aims to investigate the therapeutic effectiveness of porcine collagen hydrolysate (CH) and its underlying mechanism in the treatment of renal anemia by using adenine-induced CKD mice, RAW264.7 macrophages, and HepG2 hepatoma cells, with prolyl-hydroxyproline as a reference compound for collagen-derived hydroxyproline-containing di-/tripeptides. CH was found to alleviate renal filtering dysfunction, systemic and kidney inflammation, liver hepcidin overproduction and anemia and to increase erythropoietin production and hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-2α stability in liver and kidney in CKD mice. Prolyl-hydroxyproline exerted direct anti-inflammatory effects on lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages and elicited stimulating and inhibiting activities on erythropoietin expression and hepcidin overproduction, respectively, in HepG2 cells by HIF-2α activation. Overall, CH was effective in correcting renal anemia via anti-inflammatory renoprotection and HIF-2α-dependent erythropoietin and hepcidin regulation.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and organ damage: A current perspective

Owing to the efficacy in reducing pain and inflammation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are amongst the most popularly used medicines confirming their position in the WHO's Model List of Essential Medicines. With escalating musculoskeletal complications, as evident from 2016 Global Burden of Disease data, NSAID usage is evidently unavoidable. Apart from analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic efficacies, NSAIDs are further documented to offer protection against diverse critical disorders including cancer and heart attacks. However, data from multiple placebo-controlled trials and meta-analyses studies alarmingly signify the adverse effects of NSAIDs in gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, hepatic, renal, cerebral and pulmonary complications. Although extensive research has elucidated the mechanisms underlying the clinical hazards of NSAIDs, no review has extensively collated the outcomes on various multiorgan toxicities of these drugs together. In this regard, the present review provides a comprehensive insight of the existing knowledge and recent developments on NSAID-induced organ damage. It precisely encompasses the current understanding of structure, classification and mode of action of NSAIDs while reiterating on the emerging instances of NSAID drug repurposing along with pharmacophore modification aimed at safer usage of NSAIDs where toxic effects are tamed without compromising the clinical benefits. The review does not intend to vilify these 'wonder drugs'; rather provides a careful understanding of their side-effects which would be beneficial in evaluating the risk-benefit threshold while rationally using NSAIDs at safer dose and duration.

Identification of undocumented over-the-counter medications in an academic nephrology clinic

OBJECTIVES

To explore how accurately over-the-counter (OTC) medications were documented in an academic nephrology clinic and the benefits of using a novel short questionnaire as part of medication reconciliation (MR).

METHODS

We developed a 3-item tailored questionnaire with questions about use of aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), which clinical leadership identified as medications of interest. Over the course of 20 days, medical assistants administered the questionnaire to clinic patients immediately after the standard MR. We summarized the rate of inaccurate medication documentation by individual drug and drug class, comparing the standard MR process with the questionnaire. We also calculated diagnostic performance characteristics of the questionnaire. We evaluated the severity of drug-drug interactions between OTC medications discovered using the OTC medication questionnaire and patients' other prescription medications.

RESULTS

Nearly 30% (n = 133 of 450) of the participants had at least 1 inaccurately documented OTC medication after the standard MR. The sensitivity and specificity of the standard MR were 79.2% and 93.5%, respectively, for aspirin; 14.5% and 99.5% for NSAIDs; and 80.4% and 97.3% for PPIs. Medication omissions were resolved in the electronic health record approximately two-thirds of the time using the questionnaire. At least 1 drug-drug interaction (DDI) involving active use of an OTC medication was identified in 9.6% of the patients. Of the DDIs, the most common portended effects were increased nephrotoxicity (52.9%), increased bleeding risk (22.9%), and enhanced antiplatelet activity (7.1%).

CONCLUSION

Despite the standard MR process, inaccurate documentation of commonly used OTC medications occurred in nearly one-third of outpatients in a nephrology clinic. A brief OTC medication questionnaire may be a scalable and effective strategy to address this problem.