Crossing over between regions of limited homology in Escherichia coli. RecA-dependent and RecA-independent pathways

RecA-dependent or independent recombination of plasmid DNA generates a conflict with the host EcoKI immunity by launching restriction alleviation

Bacterial defence systems are tightly regulated to avoid autoimmunity. In Type I restriction-modification (R-M) systems, a specific mechanism called restriction alleviation (RA) controls the activity of the restriction module. In the case of the Escherichia coli Type I R-M system EcoKI, RA proceeds through ClpXP-mediated proteolysis of restriction complexes bound to non-methylated sites that appear after replication or reparation of host DNA. Here, we show that RA is also induced in the presence of plasmids carrying EcoKI recognition sites, a phenomenon we refer to as plasmid-induced RA. Further, we show that the anti-restriction behavior of plasmid-borne non-conjugative transposons such as Tn5053, previously attributed to their ardD loci, is due to plasmid-induced RA. Plasmids carrying both EcoKI and Chi sites induce RA in RecA- and RecBCD-dependent manner. However, inactivation of both RecA and RecBCD restores RA, indicating that there exists an alternative, RecA-independent, homologous recombination pathway that is blocked in the presence of RecBCD. Indeed, plasmid-induced RA in a RecBCD-deficient background does not depend on the presence of Chi sites. We propose that processing of random dsDNA breaks in plasmid DNA via homologous recombination generates non-methylated EcoKI sites, which attract EcoKI restriction complexes channeling them for ClpXP-mediated proteolysis.

Microhomology-mediated repair machinery and its relationship with HPV-mediated oncogenesis

Human Papillomaviruses (HPV) are a diverse family of non-enveloped dsDNA viruses that infect the skin and mucosal epithelia. Persistent HPV infections can lead to cancer frequently involving integration of the virus into the host genome, leading to sustained oncogene expression and loss of capsid and genome maintenance proteins. Microhomology-mediated double-strand break repair, a DNA double-stranded breaks repair pathway present in many organisms, was initially thought to be a backup but it's now seen as vital, especially in homologous recombination-deficient contexts. Increasing evidence has identified microhomology (MH) near HPV integration junctions, suggesting MH-mediated repair pathways drive integration. In this comprehensive review, we present a detailed summary of both the mechanisms underlying MH-mediated repair and the evidence for its involvement in HPV integration in cancer. Lastly, we highlight the involvement of these processes in the integration of other DNA viruses and the broader implications on virus lifecycles and host innate immune response.

Interaction of pAsa5 and pAsa8 Plasmids in Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida

The plasmid known as pAsa5 is present in Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida, a fish pathogen. The pAsa5 plasmid carries genes that are essential for the bacterium's virulence. Recombination events are known to occur in pAsa5, resulting in the loss of certain segments or the acquisition of additional genetic elements. For example, the transposon carried by the large pAsa8 plasmid was found to be inserted into the pAsa5 plasmid in the SHY16-3432 strain, enabling the addition of antibiotic resistance genes to this plasmid, which does not normally possess any. In this study, we present the isolation of additional strains carrying pAsa8. Further analyses of these strains revealed that a fusion between pAsa5 and the complete version of pAsa8 is possible. The pAsa8 transposon insertion in pAsa5 seen in the SHY16-3432 strain appears to be an aberrant event compared to the fusion of the two full-length plasmids. A 22-nucleotide sequence, present in both plasmids, serves as the site for the fusion of the two plasmids. Moreover, it is possible to introduce pAsa8 through conjugation into naive strains of A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida and once the plasmid is within a new strain, the fusion with pAsa5 is detectable. This study reveals a previously unexplored aspect of pAsa5 plasmid biology, highlighting an additional risk for the spread of antibiotic resistance genes in A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida.

Highly mismatch-tolerant homology testing by RecA could explain how homology length affects recombination

In E. coli, double strand breaks (DSBs) are resected and loaded with RecA protein. The genome is then rapidly searched for a sequence that is homologous to the DNA flanking the DSB. Mismatches in homologous partners are rare, suggesting that RecA should rapidly reject mismatched recombination products; however, this is not the case. Decades of work have shown that long lasting recombination products can include many mismatches. In this work, we show that in vitro RecA forms readily observable recombination products when 16% of the bases in the product are mismatched. We also consider various theoretical models of mismatch-tolerant homology testing. The models test homology by comparing the sequences of Ltest bases in two single-stranded DNAs (ssDNA) from the same genome. If the two sequences pass the homology test, the pairing between the two ssDNA becomes permanent. Stringency is the fraction of permanent pairings that join ssDNA from the same positions in the genome. We applied the models to both randomly generated genomes and bacterial genomes. For both randomly generated genomes and bacterial genomes, the models show that if no mismatches are accepted stringency is ∼ 99% when Ltest = 14 bp. For randomly generated genomes, stringency decreases with increasing mismatch tolerance, and stringency improves with increasing Ltest. In contrast, in bacterial genomes when Ltest ∼ 75 bp, stringency is ∼ 99% for both mismatch-intolerant and mismatch-tolerant homology testing. Furthermore, increasing Ltest does not improve stringency because most incorrect pairings join different copies of repeats. In sum, for bacterial genomes highly mismatch tolerant homology testing of 75 bp provides the same stringency as homology testing that rejects all mismatches and testing more than ∼75 base pairs is not useful. Interestingly, in vivo commitment to recombination typically requires homology testing of ∼ 75 bp, consistent with highly mismatch intolerant testing.

Generation and Repair of Postreplication Gaps in Escherichia coli

When replication forks encounter template lesions, one result is lesion skipping, where the stalled DNA polymerase transiently stalls, disengages, and then reinitiates downstream to leave the lesion behind in a postreplication gap. Despite considerable attention in the 6 decades since postreplication gaps were discovered, the mechanisms by which postreplication gaps are generated and repaired remain highly enigmatic. This review focuses on postreplication gap generation and repair in the bacterium Escherichia coli. New information to address the frequency and mechanism of gap generation and new mechanisms for their resolution are described. There are a few instances where the formation of postreplication gaps appears to be programmed into particular genomic locations, where they are triggered by novel genomic elements.

RecF protein targeting to post-replication (daughter strand) gaps II: RecF interaction with replisomes

The bacterial RecF, RecO, and RecR proteins are an epistasis group involved in loading RecA protein into post-replication gaps. However, the targeting mechanism that brings these proteins to appropriate gaps is unclear. Here, we propose that targeting may involve a direct interaction between RecF and DnaN. In vivo, RecF is commonly found at the replication fork. Over-expression of RecF, but not RecO or a RecF ATPase mutant, is extremely toxic to cells. We provide evidence that the molecular basis of the toxicity lies in replisome destabilization. RecF over-expression leads to loss of genomic replisomes, increased recombination associated with post-replication gaps, increased plasmid loss, and SOS induction. Using three different methods, we document direct interactions of RecF with the DnaN β-clamp and DnaG primase that may underlie the replisome effects. In a single-molecule rolling-circle replication system in vitro, physiological levels of RecF protein trigger post-replication gap formation. We suggest that the RecF interactions, particularly with DnaN, reflect a functional link between post-replication gap creation and gap processing by RecA. RecF's varied interactions may begin to explain how the RecFOR system is targeted to rare lesion-containing post-replication gaps, avoiding the potentially deleterious RecA loading onto thousands of other gaps created during replication.

Interaction with single-stranded DNA-binding protein (SSB) modulates Escherichia coli RadD DNA repair activities

The bacterial RadD enzyme is important for multiple genome maintenance pathways, including RecA DNA strand exchange and RecA-independent suppression of DNA crossover template switching. However, much remains unknown about the precise roles of RadD. One potential clue into RadD mechanisms is its direct interaction with the single-stranded DNA binding protein (SSB), which coats single-stranded DNA exposed during genome maintenance reactions in cells. Interaction with SSB stimulates the ATPase activity of RadD. To probe the mechanism and importance of RadD:SSB complex formation, we identified a pocket on RadD that is essential for binding SSB. In a mechanism shared with many other SSB-interacting proteins, RadD uses a hydrophobic pocket framed by basic residues to bind the C-terminal end of SSB. We found that RadD variants that substitute acidic residues for basic residues in the SSB binding site impair RadD:SSB complex formation and eliminate SSB stimulation of RadD ATPase activity in vitro. Additionally, mutant E. coli strains carrying charge reversal radD changes display increased sensitivity to DNA damaging agents synergistically with deletions of radA and recG, although the phenotypes of the SSB-binding radD mutants are not as severe as a full radD deletion. This suggests that cellular RadD requires an intact the interaction with SSB for full RadD function.

Contribution of Microhomology to Genome Instability: Connection between DNA Repair and Replication Stress

Microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) is a highly mutagenic pathway to repair double-strand breaks (DSBs). MMEJ was thought to be a backup pathway of homologous recombination (HR) and canonical nonhomologous end joining (C-NHEJ). However, it attracts more attention in cancer research due to its special function of microhomology in many different aspects of cancer. In particular, it is initiated with DNA end resection and upregulated in homologous recombination-deficient cancers. In this review, I summarize the following: (1) the recent findings and contributions of MMEJ to genome instability, including phenotypes relevant to MMEJ; (2) the interaction between MMEJ and other DNA repair pathways; (3) the proposed mechanistic model of MMEJ in DNA DSB repair and a new connection with microhomology-mediated break-induced replication (MMBIR); and (4) the potential clinical application by targeting MMEJ based on synthetic lethality for cancer therapy.

Bioproduction of Linalool From Paper Mill Waste

A key challenge in chemicals biomanufacturing is the maintenance of stable, highly productive microbial strains to enable cost-effective fermentation at scale. A “cookie-cutter” approach to microbial engineering is often used to optimize host stability and productivity. This can involve identifying potential limitations in strain characteristics followed by attempts to systematically optimize production strains by targeted engineering. Such targeted approaches however do not always lead to the desired traits. Here, we demonstrate both ‘hit and miss’ outcomes of targeted approaches in attempts to generate a stable Escherichia coli strain for the bioproduction of the monoterpenoid linalool, a fragrance molecule of industrial interest. First, we stabilized linalool production strains by eliminating repetitive sequences responsible for excision of pathway components in plasmid constructs that encode the pathway for linalool production. These optimized pathway constructs were then integrated within the genome of E. coli in three parts to eliminate a need for antibiotics to maintain linalool production. Additional strategies were also employed including: reduction in cytotoxicity of linalool by adaptive laboratory evolution and modification or homologous gene replacement of key bottleneck enzymes GPPS/LinS. Our study highlights that a major factor influencing linalool titres in E. coli is the stability of the genetic construct against excision or similar recombination events. Other factors, such as decreasing linalool cytotoxicity and changing pathway genes, did not lead to improvements in the stability or titres obtained. With the objective of reducing fermentation costs at scale, the use of minimal base medium containing paper mill wastewater secondary paper fiber as sole carbon source was also investigated. This involved simultaneous saccharification and fermentation using either supplemental cellulase blends or by co-expressing secretable cellulases in E. coli containing the stabilized linalool production pathway. Combined, this study has demonstrated a stable method for linalool production using an abundant and low-cost feedstock and improved production strains, providing an important proof-of-concept for chemicals production from paper mill waste streams. For scaled production, optimization will be required, using more holistic approaches that involve further rounds of microbial engineering and fermentation process development.

Single strand gap repair: The presynaptic phase plays a pivotal role in modulating lesion tolerance pathways

During replication, the presence of unrepaired lesions results in the formation of single stranded DNA (ssDNA) gaps that need to be repaired to preserve genome integrity and cell survival. All organisms have evolved two major lesion tolerance pathways to continue replication: Translesion Synthesis (TLS), potentially mutagenic, and Homology Directed Gap Repair (HDGR), that relies on homologous recombination. In Escherichia coli, the RecF pathway repairs such ssDNA gaps by processing them to produce a recombinogenic RecA nucleofilament during the presynaptic phase. In this study, we show that the presynaptic phase is crucial for modulating lesion tolerance pathways since the competition between TLS and HDGR occurs at this stage. Impairing either the extension of the ssDNA gap (mediated by the nuclease RecJ and the helicase RecQ) or the loading of RecA (mediated by RecFOR) leads to a decrease in HDGR and a concomitant increase in TLS. Hence, we conclude that defects in the presynaptic phase delay the formation of the D-loop and increase the time window allowed for TLS. In contrast, we show that a defect in the postsynaptic phase that impairs HDGR does not lead to an increase in TLS. Unexpectedly, we also reveal a strong genetic interaction between recF and recJ genes, that results in a recA deficient-like phenotype in which HDGR is almost completely abolished.

The Escherichia coli serS gene promoter region overlaps with the rarA gene

Deletion of the entire gene encoding the RarA protein of Escherichia coli results in a growth defect and additional deficiencies that were initially ascribed to a lack of RarA function. Further work revealed that most of the effects reflected the presence of sequences in the rarA gene that affect expression of the downstream gene, serS. The serS gene encodes the seryl aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. Decreases in the expression of serS can trigger the stringent response. The sequences that affect serS expression are located in the last 15 nucleotides of the rarA gene.

Modulation of RecFORQ- and RecA-Mediated Homologous Recombination in Escherichia coli by Isoforms of Translation Initiation Factor IF2

Homologous recombination (HR) is critically important for chromosomal replication, as well as DNA damage repair in all life forms. In Escherichia coli, the process of HR comprises (i) two parallel presynaptic pathways that are mediated, respectively, by proteins RecB/C/D and RecF/O/R/Q; (ii) a synaptic step mediated by RecA that leads to generation of Holliday junctions (HJs); and (iii) postsynaptic steps mediated sequentially by HJ-acting proteins RuvA/B/C followed by proteins PriA/B/C of replication restart. Combined loss of RuvA/B/C and a DNA helicase UvrD is synthetically lethal, which is attributed to toxicity caused by accumulated HJs since viability in these double mutant strains is restored by removal of the presynaptic or synaptic proteins RecF/O/R/Q or RecA, respectively. Here we show that, as in ΔuvrD strains, ruv mutations confer synthetic lethality in cells deficient for transcription termination factor Rho, and that loss of RecFORQ presynaptic pathway proteins or of RecA suppresses this lethality. Furthermore, loss of IF2-1 (which is one of three isoforms [IF2-1, IF2-2, and IF2-3] of the essential translation initiation factor IF2 that are synthesized from three in-frame initiation codons in infB) also suppressed uvrD-ruv and rho-ruv lethalities, whereas deficiency of IF2-2 and IF2-3 exacerbated the synthetic defects. Our results suggest that Rho deficiency is associated with an increased frequency of HR that is mediated by the RecFORQ pathway along with RecA. They also lend support to earlier reports that IF2 isoforms participate in DNA transactions, and we propose that they do so by modulation of HR functions. IMPORTANCE The process of homologous recombination (HR) is important for maintenance of genome integrity in all cells. In Escherichia coli, the RecA protein is a critical participant in HR, which acts at a step common to and downstream of two HR pathways mediated by the RecBCD and RecFOR proteins, respectively. In this study, an isoform (IF2-1) of the translation initiation factor IF2 has been identified as a novel facilitator of RecA's function in vivo during HR.

Escherichia coli BW25113 Competent Cells Prepared Using a Simple Chemical Method Have Unmatched Transformation and Cloning Efficiencies

Escherichia coli recA⁻ strains are usually used for cloning to prevent insert instability via RecA-dependent recombination. Here, we report that E. coli BW25113 (recA⁺) competent cells prepared by using a previously reported transformation and storage solution (TSS) had 100-fold or higher transformation efficiency than the commonly used E. coli cloning strains, including XL1-Blue MRF’. The cloning success rates with E. coli BW25113 were 440 to 1,267-fold higher than those with E. coli XL1-Blue MRF’ when several inserts were assembled into four vectors by using a simple DNA assembly method. The difference was in part due to RecA, as the recA deletion in E. coli BW25113 reduced the transformation efficiency by 16 folds and cloning success rate by about 10 folds. However, the transformation efficiency and the cloning success rate of the recA deletion mutant of E. coli BW25113 are still 12- and >48-fold higher than those of E. coli XL1-Blue MRF’, which is a commonly used cloning strain. The cloned inserts with different lengths of homologous sequences were assembled into four vectors and transformed into E. coli BW25113, and they were stably maintained in BW25113. Thus, we recommend using E. coli BW25113 for efficient cloning and DNA assembly.

Recombinase-free cloning (RFC) protocol for gene swapping

Recombinant DNA technology has been playing the key role for a long time since its first beginning. DNA ligases have certainly contributed to the development of cloning techniques, as well as molecular study up to now. Despite being a prime cloning tool, DNA ligases still face some shortcomings which lead to their limit of use. Our study provided an improved method that simplified the basic restriction enzyme-based cloning (REC) by eliminating the ligation role, named recombinase-free cloning (RFC). This improved technique was designed with only one PCR reaction, one digestion reaction, and one temperature profile, which takes advantage of endogenous recombinase in E. coli host to create the target recombinant vector inside the cell. All purification steps were eliminated for effectively material- and time-saving. Five different clones were generated by RFC. This method showed relatively low efficiency yet successful at a range of 100% in every conducted trial with fragment sizes from 0.5-1.0 kbp. The RFC method could be completed within a day (about 9 hours), without the need of ligase or recombinase or purification steps, which significantly saved DNA components, materials as well as the time required. In conclusion, we expected to provide a more convenient cloning method, as well as enable faster generation of DNA clones, which would be well applied in the less equipped laboratories.

Dup-In and DIRex: Techniques for Single-Step, Scar-Free Mutagenesis with Marker Recycling

This chapter describes two related recombineering-based techniques: "Duplication Insertion" (Dup-In) and "Direct- and Inverted Repeat stimulated excision" (DIRex). Dup-In is used for transferring existing mutations between strains, and DIRex for generating almost any type of mutation. Both techniques use intermediate insertions with counter-selectable cassettes, flanked by directly repeated sequences that enable exact and spontaneous excision of the cassettes. These constructs can be transferred to other strains using generalized transductions, and the final intended mutation is obtained following selection for spontaneous loss of the counter-selectable cassette, which leaves only the intended mutation behind in the final strain. The techniques have been used in several strains of Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica, and should be readily adaptable to other organisms where λ Red recombineering or similar methods are available.

The rarA gene as part of an expanded RecFOR recombination pathway: Negative epistasis and synthetic lethality with ruvB, recG, and recQ

The RarA protein, homologous to human WRNIP1 and yeast MgsA, is a AAA+ ATPase and one of the most highly conserved DNA repair proteins. With an apparent role in the repair of stalled or collapsed replication forks, the molecular function of this protein family remains obscure. Here, we demonstrate that RarA acts in late stages of recombinational DNA repair of post-replication gaps. A deletion of most of the rarA gene, when paired with a deletion of ruvB or ruvC, produces a growth defect, a strong synergistic increase in sensitivity to DNA damaging agents, cell elongation, and an increase in SOS induction. Except for SOS induction, these effects are all suppressed by inactivating recF, recO, or recJ, indicating that RarA, along with RuvB, acts downstream of RecA. SOS induction increases dramatically in a rarA ruvB recF/O triple mutant, suggesting the generation of large amounts of unrepaired ssDNA. The rarA ruvB defects are not suppressed (and in fact slightly increased) by recB inactivation, suggesting RarA acts primarily downstream of RecA in post-replication gaps rather than in double strand break repair. Inactivating rarA, ruvB and recG together is synthetically lethal, an outcome again suppressed by inactivation of recF, recO, or recJ. A rarA ruvB recQ triple deletion mutant is also inviable. Together, the results suggest the existence of multiple pathways, perhaps overlapping, for the resolution or reversal of recombination intermediates created by RecA protein in post-replication gaps within the broader RecF pathway. One of these paths involves RarA.

Genetic Analysis of DinG Family Helicase YoaA and Its Interaction with Replication Clamp Loader Protein HolC in Escherichia coli

The XP-D/DinG family of DNA helicases contributes to genomic stability in all three domains of life. Here, we investigate the role of one of these proteins, YoaA, of Escherichia coli. In E. coli, YoaA aids in tolerance to the nucleoside azidothymidine (AZT), a DNA replication inhibitor, and physically interacts with a subunit of the DNA polymerase III holoenzyme, HolC. We map the residues of YoaA required for HolC interaction to its C terminus by yeast two-hybrid analysis. We propose that this interaction competes with HolC’s interaction with HolD and the rest of the replisome; YoaA indeed inhibits growth when overexpressed, dependent on this interaction region. By gene fusions, we show that YoaA is repressed by LexA and induced in response to DNA damage as part of the SOS response. Induction of YoaA by AZT is biphasic, with an immediate response after treatment and a slower response that peaks in the late log phase of growth. This growth-phase-dependent induction by AZT is not blocked by lexA3 (Ind⁻), which normally negates its self-cleavage, implying another means to induce the DNA damage response that responds to the nutritional state of the cell. We propose that YoaA helicase activity increases access to the 3′ nascent strand during replication; consistent with this, YoaA appears to aid in the removal of potential A-to-T transversion mutations in ndk mutants, which are prone to nucleotide misincorporation. We provide evidence that YoaA and its paralog DinG may also initiate template switching that leads to deletions between tandem repeats in DNA.

IMPORTANCE Maintaining genomic stability is crucial for all living organisms. Replication of DNA frequently encounters barriers that must be removed to complete genome duplication. Balancing DNA synthesis with its repair is critical and not entirely understood at a mechanistic level. The YoaA protein, studied here, is required for certain types of DNA repair and interacts in an alternative manner with proteins that catalyze DNA replication. YoaA is part of the well-studied LexA-regulated response to DNA damage, the SOS response. We describe an unusual feature of its regulation that promotes induction after DNA damage as the culture begins to experience starvation. Replication fork repair integrates both DNA damage and nutritional signals. We also show that YoaA affects genomic stability.

Influences of ssDNA-RecA Filament Length on the Fidelity of Homologous Recombination

Chromosomal double-strand breaks can be accurately repaired by homologous recombination, but genomic rearrangement can result if the repair joins different copies of a repeated sequence. Rearrangement can be advantageous or fatal. During repair, a broken double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is digested by the RecBCD complex from the 5' end, leaving a sequence gap that separates two 3' single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) tails. RecA binds to the 3' tails forming helical nucleoprotein filaments.A three-strand intermediate is formed when a RecA-bound ssDNA with L nucleotides invades a homologous region of dsDNA and forms a heteroduplex product with a length ≤ L bp. The homology dependent stability of the heteroduplex determines how rapidly and accurately homologous recombination repairs double-strand breaks. If the heteroduplex is sufficiently sequence matched, repair progresses to irreversible DNA synthesis. Otherwise, the heteroduplex should rapidly reverse. In this work, we present in vitro measurements of the L dependent stability of heteroduplex products formed by filaments with 90 ≤ L ≤ 420 nt, which is within the range observedin vivo. We find that without ATP hydrolysis, products are irreversible when L > 50 nt. In contrast, with ATP hydrolysis when L < 160 nt, products reverse in < 30 seconds; however, with ATP hydrolysis when L ≥ 320 nt, some products reverse in < 30 seconds, while others last thousands of seconds. We consider why these two different filament length regimes show such distinct behaviors. We propose that the experimental results combined with theoretical insights suggest that filaments with 250 ≲ L ≲ 8500 nt optimize DSB repair.

DNA damage-signaling, homologous recombination and genetic mutation induced by 5-azacytidine and DNA-protein crosslinks in Escherichia coli

Covalent linkage between DNA and proteins produces highly toxic lesions and can be caused by commonly used chemotherapeutic agents, by internal and external chemicals and by radiation. In this study, using Escherichia coli, we investigate the consequences of 5-azacytidine (5-azaC), which traps covalent complexes between itself and the Dcm cytosine methyltransferase protein. DNA protein crosslink-dependent effects can be ascertained by effects that arise in wild-type but not in dcmΔ strains. We find that 5-azaC induces the bacterial DNA damage response and stimulates homologous recombination, a component of which is Dcm-dependent. Template-switching at an imperfect inverted repeat ("quasipalindrome", QP) is strongly enhanced by 5-azaC and this enhancement was entirely Dcm-dependent and independent of double-strand break repair. The SOS response helps ameliorate the mutagenic effect of 5-azaC but this is not a result of SOS-induced DNA polymerases since their induction, especially PolIV, seems to stimulate QP-associated mutagenesis. Cell division regulator SulA was also required for recovery of QP mutants induced by 5-azaC. In the absence of Lon protease, Dcm-dependent QP-mutagenesis is strongly elevated, suggesting it may play a role in DPC tolerance. Deletions at short tandem repeats, which occur likewise by a replication template-switch, are elevated, but only modestly, by 5-azaC. We see evidence for Dcm-dependent and-independent killing by 5-azaC in sensitive mutants, such as recA, recB, and lon; homologous recombination and deletion mutations are also stimulated in part by a Dcm-independent effect of 5-azaC. Whether this occurs by a different protein/DNA crosslink or by an alternative form of DNA damage is unknown.

The pathway of recombining short homologous ends in Escherichia coli revealed by the genetic study

The recombination of short homologous ends in Escherichia coli has been known for 30 years, and it is often used for both site-directed mutagenesis and in vivo cloning. For cloning, a plasmid and target DNA fragments were converted into linear DNA fragments with short homologous ends, which are joined via recombination inside E. coli after transformation. Here this mechanism of joining homologous ends in E. coli was determined by a linearized plasmid with short homologous ends. Two 3'-5' exonucleases ExoIII and ExoX with nonprocessive activity digested linear dsDNA to generate 5' single-strand overhangs, which annealed with each other. The polymerase activity of DNA polymerase I (Pol I) was exclusively employed to fill in the gaps. The strand displacement activity and the 5'-3' exonuclease activity of Pol I were also required, likely to generate 5' phosphate termini for subsequent ligation. Ligase A (LigA) joined the nicks to finish the process. The model involving 5' single-stranded overhangs is different from established recombination pathways that all generate 3' single-stranded overhangs. This recombination is likely common in bacteria since the involved enzymes are ubiquitous.

Agrobacterium strains and strain improvement: Present and outlook

Almost 40 years ago the first transgenic plant was generated through Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation, which, until now, remains the method of choice for gene delivery into plants. Ever since, optimized Agrobacterium strains have been developed with additional (genetic) modifications that were mostly aimed at enhancing the transformation efficiency, although an optimized strain also exists that reduces unwanted plasmid recombination. As a result, a collection of very useful strains has been created to transform a wide variety of plant species, but has also led to a confusing Agrobacterium strain nomenclature. The latter is often misleading for choosing the best-suited strain for one's transformation purposes. To overcome this issue, we provide a complete overview of the strain classification. We also indicate different strain modifications and their purposes, as well as the obtained results with regard to the transformation process sensu largo. Furthermore, we propose additional improvements of the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation process and consider several worthwhile modifications, for instance, by circumventing a defense response in planta. In this regard, we will discuss pattern-triggered immunity, pathogen-associated molecular pattern detection, hormone homeostasis and signaling, and reactive oxygen species in relationship to Agrobacterium transformation. We will also explore alterations that increase agrobacterial transformation efficiency, reduce plasmid recombination, and improve biocontainment. Finally, we recommend the use of a modular system to best utilize the available knowledge for successful plant transformation.

Conjugal DNA Transfer in Sodalis glossinidius, a Maternally Inherited Symbiont of Tsetse Flies

Tsetse flies are the insect vectors of T. brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness—a zoonotic disease that inflicts a substantial economic cost on a broad region of sub-Saharan Africa. Notably, tsetse flies can be infected with the bacterium S. glossinidius to establish an asymptomatic chronic infection. This infection can be inherited by future generations of tsetse flies, allowing S. glossinidius to spread and persist within populations. To this effect, S. glossinidius has been considered a potential expression platform to create flies which reduce T. brucei stasis and lower overall parasite transmission to humans and animals. However, the efficient genetic manipulation of S. glossinidius has remained a technical challenge due to its complex growth requirements and uncharacterized physiology. Here, we exploit a natural mechanism of DNA transfer among bacteria and develop an efficient technique to genetically manipulate S. glossinidius for future studies in reducing trypanosome transmission.

Stable associations between insects and bacterial species are widespread in nature. This is the case for many economically important insects, such as tsetse flies. Tsetse flies are the vectors of Trypanosoma brucei, the etiological agent of African trypanosomiasis—a zoonotic disease that incurs a high socioeconomic cost in regions of endemicity. Populations of tsetse flies are often infected with the bacterium Sodalis glossinidius. Following infection, S. glossinidius establishes a chronic, stable association characterized by vertical (maternal) and horizontal (paternal) modes of transmission. Due to the stable nature of this association, S. glossinidius has been long sought as a means for the implementation of anti-Trypanosoma paratransgenesis in tsetse flies. However, the lack of tools for the genetic modification of S. glossinidius has hindered progress in this area. Here, we establish that S. glossinidius is amenable to DNA uptake by conjugation. We show that conjugation can be used as a DNA delivery method to conduct forward and reverse genetic experiments in this bacterium. This study serves as an important step in the development of genetic tools for S. glossinidius. The methods highlighted here should guide the implementation of genetics for the study of the tsetse-Sodalis association and the evaluation of S. glossinidius-based tsetse fly paratransgenesis strategies.

IMPORTANCE Tsetse flies are the insect vectors of T. brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness—a zoonotic disease that inflicts a substantial economic cost on a broad region of sub-Saharan Africa. Notably, tsetse flies can be infected with the bacterium S. glossinidius to establish an asymptomatic chronic infection. This infection can be inherited by future generations of tsetse flies, allowing S. glossinidius to spread and persist within populations. To this effect, S. glossinidius has been considered a potential expression platform to create flies which reduce T. brucei stasis and lower overall parasite transmission to humans and animals. However, the efficient genetic manipulation of S. glossinidius has remained a technical challenge due to its complex growth requirements and uncharacterized physiology. Here, we exploit a natural mechanism of DNA transfer among bacteria and develop an efficient technique to genetically manipulate S. glossinidius for future studies in reducing trypanosome transmission.

Cloning short DNA into plasmids by one-step PCR

Background

Plasmid construction of small fragments of interest (such as insertion of small fragment marker genes, expression of shRNA, siRNA, etc) is the basis of many biomolecular experiments. Here, we describe a method to clone short DNA into vectors by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), named one‐step PCR cloning. Our method uses PCR to amplify the entire circular plasmid. The PCR was performed by the primers containing the gene of short DNA with overlapping sequences between 10–15 bp. The PCR products were then transformed into E. coli and cyclized by homologous recombination in vivo.

Methods

The pEGFP‐N1‐HA plasmid was constructed by one‐step PCR and transformation. Cells were transfected with pEGFP‐N1‐HA and pEGFP‐N1 plasmid using TurboFect transfection reagent. Protein expression was detected by western blotting and the HA‐GFP fusion protein was detected by confocal microscopy.

Results

The pEGFP‐N1‐HA plasmid was successfully constructed and HA expression in cells.

Conclusions

Free from the limitations of restriction enzyme sites and omitting the ligation process, our method offers a flexible and economical option of plasmid construction.

Key points

Enhanced Agrobacterium-mediated transformation revealed attenuation of exogenous plasmid DNA installation in recipient bacteria by exonuclease VII and SbcCD

In DNA transfer via type IV secretion system (T4SS), relaxase enzyme releases linear ssDNA in donor cells and recircularizes in recipient cells. Using VirB/D4 T4SS, Agrobacterium cells can transfer an IncQ-type plasmid depending on Mob relaxase and a model T-DNA plasmid depending on VirD2 relaxase. Mobilization to Escherichia coli of the former plasmid is much more efficient than that of the latter, whereas an entirely reverse relationship is observed in transfer to yeast. These data suggest that either plasmid recircularization or conversion of ssDNA to dsDNA in the recipient bacterial cells is a rate-limiting step of the transfer. In this study, we examined involvement of exonuclease genes in the plasmid acceptability. By the VirD2-dependent T-DNA plasmid, E. coli sbcDΔ and sbcCΔ mutant strains produced threefold more exconjugants, and a sbcDΔ xseAΔ mutant strain yielded eightfold more exconjugants than their wild-type strain. In contrast to the enhancing effect on the VirD2-mediated transfer, the mutations exhibited a subtle effect on the Mob-mediated transfer. These results support our working hypothesis that VirD2 can transport its substrate ssDNA efficiently to recipient cells and that recipient nucleases degrade the ssDNA because VirD2 has some defect(s) in the circularization and completion of complementary DNA synthesis.

Frequent template switching in postreplication gaps: suppression of deleterious consequences by the Escherichia coli Uup and RadD proteins

When replication forks encounter template DNA lesions, the lesion is simply skipped in some cases. The resulting lesion-containing gap must be converted to duplex DNA to permit repair. Some gap filling occurs via template switching, a process that generates recombination-like branched DNA intermediates. The Escherichia coli Uup and RadD proteins function in different pathways to process the branched intermediates. Uup is a UvrA-like ABC family ATPase. RadD is a RecQ-like SF2 family ATPase. Loss of both functions uncovers frequent and RecA-independent deletion events in a plasmid-based assay. Elevated levels of crossing over and repeat expansions accompany these deletion events, indicating that many, if not most, of these events are associated with template switching in postreplication gaps as opposed to simple replication slippage. The deletion data underpin simulations indicating that multiple postreplication gaps may be generated per replication cycle. Both Uup and RadD bind to branched DNAs in vitro. RadD protein suppresses crossovers and Uup prevents nucleoid mis-segregation. Loss of Uup and RadD function increases sensitivity to ciprofloxacin. We present Uup and RadD as genomic guardians. These proteins govern two pathways for resolution of branched DNA intermediates such that potentially deleterious genome rearrangements arising from frequent template switching are averted.

RHS-elements function as type II toxin-antitoxin modules that regulate intra-macrophage replication of Salmonella Typhimurium

RHS elements are components of conserved toxin-delivery systems, wide-spread within the bacterial kingdom and some of the most positively selected genes known. However, very little is known about how Rhs toxins affect bacterial biology. Salmonella Typhimurium contains a full-length rhs gene and an adjacent orphan rhs gene, which lacks the conserved delivery part of the Rhs protein. Here we show that, in addition to the conventional delivery, Rhs toxin-antitoxin pairs encode for functional type-II toxin-antitoxin (TA) loci that regulate S. Typhimurium proliferation within macrophages. Mutant S. Typhimurium cells lacking both Rhs toxins proliferate 2-times better within macrophages, mainly because of an increased growth rate. Thus, in addition to providing strong positive selection for the rhs loci under conditions when there is little or no toxin delivery, internal expression of the toxin-antitoxin system regulates growth in the stressful environment found inside macrophages.

Bacteria that reside and multiply inside of phagocytic cells are hard to treat with common antibiotics, partly because subpopulations of bacteria are non-growing. Very little is known about how bacteria regulate their growth in the phagocytic vesicle. We show that RHS elements, previously known to function as mobilizable toxins that inhibit growth of neighboring bacteria, also function as internally expressed toxin-antitoxin systems that regulate Salmonella Typhimurium growth in macrophages. RHS elements were discovered more than 30 years ago, but their role in biology has long remained unclear even though they are some of the most positively selected genes known. Our results suggest an explanation to why rhs genes are under such strong positive selection in addition to suggesting a novel function for these toxins in regulating bacterial growth.

Evolution of satellite plasmids can prolong the maintenance of newly acquired accessory genes in bacteria

Transmissible plasmids spread genes encoding antibiotic resistance and other traits to new bacterial species. Here we report that laboratory populations of Escherichia coli with a newly acquired IncQ plasmid often evolve 'satellite plasmids' with deletions of accessory genes and genes required for plasmid replication. Satellite plasmids are molecular parasites: their presence reduces the copy number of the full-length plasmid on which they rely for their continued replication. Cells with satellite plasmids gain an immediate fitness advantage from reducing burdensome expression of accessory genes. Yet, they maintain copies of these genes and the complete plasmid, which potentially enables them to benefit from and transmit the traits they encode in the future. Evolution of satellite plasmids is transient. Cells that entirely lose accessory gene function or plasmid mobility dominate in the long run. Satellite plasmids also evolve in Snodgrassella alvi colonizing the honey bee gut, suggesting that this mechanism may broadly contribute to the importance of IncQ plasmids as agents of bacterial gene transfer in nature.

Sources of off-target expression from recombinase-dependent AAV vectors and mitigation with cross-over insensitive ATG-out vectors

In combination with transgenic mouse lines expressing Cre or Flp recombinases in defined cell types, recombinase-dependent adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) have become the tool of choice for localized cell-type-targeted gene expression. Unfortunately, applications of this technique when expressing highly sensitive transgenes are impeded by off-target, or "leak" expression, from recombinase-dependent AAVs. We investigated this phenomenon and find that leak expression is mediated by both infrequent transcription from the inverted transgene in recombinant-dependent AAV designs and recombination events during bacterial AAV plasmid production. Recombination in bacteria is mediated by homology across the antiparallel recombinase-specific recognition sites present in recombinase-dependent designs. To address both of these issues we designed an AAV vector that uses mutant "cross-over insensitive" recognition sites combined with an "ATG-out" design. We show that these CIAO (cross-over insensitive ATG-out) vectors virtually eliminate leak expression. CIAO vectors provide reliable and targeted transgene expression and are extremely useful for recombinase-dependent expression of highly sensitive transgenes.

Characterization of the Chromosome Dimer Resolution Site in Caulobacter crescentus

Chromosome dimers occur in bacterial cells as a result of the recombinational repair of DNA. In most bacteria, chromosome dimers are resolved by XerCD site-specific recombination at the dif (deletion-induced filamentation) site located in the terminus region of the chromosome. Caulobacter crescentus, a Gram-negative oligotrophic bacterium, also possesses Xer recombinases, called CcXerC and CcXerD, which have been shown to interact with the Escherichia coli dif site in vitro Previous studies on Caulobacter have suggested the presence of a dif site (referred to in this paper as dif1_CC ), but no in vitro data have shown any association with this site and the CcXer proteins. Using recursive hidden Markov modeling, another group has proposed a second dif site, which we call dif2_CC , which shows more similarity to the dif consensus sequence. Here, by using a combination of in vitro experiments, we compare the affinities and the cleavage abilities of CcXerCD recombinases for both dif sites. Our results show that dif2_CC displays a higher affinity for CcXerC and CcXerD and is bound cooperatively by these proteins, which is not the case for the original dif1_CC site. Furthermore, dif2_CC nicked substrates are more efficiently cleaved by CcXerCD, and deletion of the site results in about 5 to 10% of cells showing an altered cellular morphology.IMPORTANCE Bacteria utilize site-specific recombination for a variety of purposes, including the control of gene expression, acquisition of genetic elements, and the resolution of dimeric chromosomes. Failure to resolve dimeric chromosomes can lead to cell division defects in a percentage of the cell population. The work presented here shows the existence of a chromosomal resolution system in C. crescentus Defects in this resolution system result in the formation of chains of cells. Further understanding of how these cells remain linked together will help in the understanding of how chromosome segregation and cell division are linked in C. crescentus.

In vivo DNA assembly using common laboratory bacteria: A re-emerging tool to simplify molecular cloning

Molecular cloning is a cornerstone of biomedical, biotechnological, and synthetic biology research. As such, improved cloning methodologies can significantly advance the speed and cost of research projects. Whereas current popular cloning approaches use in vitro assembly of DNA fragments, in vivo cloning offers potential for greater simplification. It is generally assumed that bacterial in vivo cloning requires Escherichia coli strains with enhanced recombination ability; however, this is incorrect. A widely present, bacterial RecA-independent recombination pathway is re-emerging as a powerful tool for molecular cloning and DNA assembly. This poorly understood pathway offers optimal cloning properties (i.e. seamless, directional, and sequence-independent) without requiring in vitro DNA assembly or specialized bacteria, therefore vastly simplifying cloning procedures. Although the use of this pathway to perform DNA assembly was first reported over 25 years ago, it failed to gain popularity, possibly due to both technical and circumstantial reasons. Technical limitations have now been overcome, and recent reports have demonstrated its versatility for DNA manipulation. Here, we summarize the historical trajectory of this approach and collate recent reports to provide a roadmap for its optimal use. Given the simplified protocols and minimal requirements, cloning using in vivo DNA assembly in E. coli has the potential to become widely employed across the molecular biology community.

Elucidating genomic patterns and recombination events in plant cybrid mitochondria

KEY MESSAGE

Cybrid plant mitochondria undergo homologous recombination, mainly BIR, keep a single allele for each gene, and maintain exclusive sequences of each parent and a single copy of the homologous regions. The maintenance of a dynamic equilibrium between the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes requires continuous communication and a high level of compatibility between them, so that alterations in one genetic compartment need adjustments in the other. The co-evolution of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes has been poorly studied, even though the consequences and effects of this interaction are highly relevant for human health, as well as for crop improvement programs and for genetic engineering. The mitochondria of plants represent an excellent system to understand the mechanisms of genomic rearrangements, chimeric gene formation, incompatibility between nucleus and cytoplasm, and horizontal gene transfer. We carried out detailed analyses of the mtDNA of a repeated cybrid between the solanaceae Nicotiana tabacum and Hyoscyamus niger. The mtDNA of the cybrid was intermediate between the size of the parental mtDNAs and the sum of them. Noticeably, most of the homologous sequences inherited from both parents were lost. In contrast, the majority of the sequences exclusive of a single parent were maintained. The mitochondrial gene content included a majority of N. tabacum derived genes, but also chimeric, two-parent derived, and H. niger-derived genes in a tobacco nuclear background. Any of these alterations in the gene content could be the cause of CMS in the cybrid. The parental mtDNAs interacted through 28 homologous recombination events and a single case of illegitimate recombination. Three main homologous recombination mechanisms were recognized in the cybrid mitochondria. Break induced replication (BIR) pathway was the most frequent. We propose that BIR could be one of the mechanisms responsible for the loss of the majority of the repeated regions derived from H. niger.

Slow extension of the invading DNA strand in a D-loop formed by RecA-mediated homologous recombination may enhance recognition of DNA homology

DNA recombination resulting from RecA-mediated strand exchange aided by RecBCD proteins often enables accurate repair of DNA double-strand breaks. However, the process of recombinational repair between short DNA regions of accidental similarity can lead to fatal genomic rearrangements. Previous studies have probed how effectively RecA discriminates against interactions involving a short similar sequence that is embedded in otherwise dissimilar sequences but have not yielded fully conclusive results. Here, we present results of in vitro experiments with fluorescent probes strategically located on the interacting DNA fragments used for recombination. Our findings suggest that DNA synthesis increases the stability of the recombination products. Fluorescence measurements can also probe the homology dependence of the extension of invading DNA strands in D-loops formed by RecA-mediated strand exchange. We examined the slow extension of the invading strand in a D-loop by DNA polymerase (Pol) IV and the more rapid extension by DNA polymerase LF-Bsu. We found that when DNA Pol IV extends the invading strand in a D-loop formed by RecA-mediated strand exchange, the extension afforded by 82 bp of homology is significantly longer than the extension on 50 bp of homology. In contrast, the extension of the invading strand in D-loops by DNA LF-Bsu Pol is similar for intermediates with ≥50 bp of homology. These results suggest that fatal genomic rearrangements due to the recombination of small regions of accidental homology may be reduced if RecA-mediated strand exchange is immediately followed by DNA synthesis by a slow polymerase.

Stimulation of Replication Template-Switching by DNA-Protein Crosslinks

Covalent DNA protein crosslinks (DPCs) are common lesions that block replication. We examine here the consequence of DPCs on mutagenesis involving replicational template-switch reactions in Escherichia coli. 5-Azacytidine (5-azaC) is a potent mutagen for template-switching. This effect is dependent on DNA cytosine methylase (Dcm), implicating the Dcm-DNA covalent complex trapped by 5-azaC as the initiator for mutagenesis. The leading strand of replication is more mutable than the lagging strand, which can be explained by blocks to the replicative helicase and/or fork regression. We find that template-switch mutagenesis induced by 5-azaC does not require double strand break repair via RecABCD; the ability to induce the SOS response is anti-mutagenic. Mutants in recB, but not recA, exhibit high constitutive rates of template-switching, and we suggest that RecBCD-mediated DNA degradation prevents template-switching associated with fork regression. A mutation in the DnaB fork helicase also promotes high levels of template-switching. We also find that other DPC-inducers, formaldehyde (a non-specific crosslinker) and ciprofloxacin (a topoisomerase II poison) are also strong mutagens for template-switching with similar genetic properties. Induction of mutations and genetic rearrangements that occur by template-switching may constitute a previously unrecognized component of the genotoxicity and genetic instability promoted by DPCs.

Engineered dCas9 with reduced toxicity in bacteria: implications for genetic circuit design

Large synthetic genetic circuits require the simultaneous expression of many regulators. Deactivated Cas9 (dCas9) can serve as a repressor by having a small guide RNA (sgRNA) direct it to bind a promoter. The programmability and specificity of RNA:DNA basepairing simplifies the generation of many orthogonal sgRNAs that, in theory, could serve as a large set of regulators in a circuit. However, dCas9 is toxic in many bacteria, thus limiting how high it can be expressed, and low concentrations are quickly sequestered by multiple sgRNAs. Here, we construct a non-toxic version of dCas9 by eliminating PAM (protospacer adjacent motif) binding with a R1335K mutation (dCas9*) and recovering DNA binding by fusing it to the PhlF repressor (dCas9*_PhlF). Both the 30 bp PhlF operator and 20 bp sgRNA binding site are required to repress a promoter. The larger region required for recognition mitigates toxicity in Escherichia coli, allowing up to 9600 ± 800 molecules of dCas9*_PhlF per cell before growth or morphology are impacted, as compared to 530 ± 40 molecules of dCas9. Further, PhlF multimerization leads to an increase in average cooperativity from n = 0.9 (dCas9) to 1.6 (dCas9*_PhlF). A set of 30 orthogonal sgRNA-promoter pairs are characterized as NOT gates; however, the simultaneous use of multiple sgRNAs leads to a monotonic decline in repression and after 15 are co-expressed the dynamic range is <10-fold. This work introduces a non-toxic variant of dCas9, critical for its use in applications in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology, and exposes a limitation in the number of regulators that can be used in one cell when they rely on a shared resource.

The plasmid vectors, pBS2ndd and pBS3ndd, for versatile cloning with low background in Escherichia coli

For decades, diverse plasmid vectors have been continuously developed for molecular cloning of DNA fragment in the bacterial host cell Escherichia coli. Even with deliberate performances in vector preparation, the cloning approaches still face inevitable background colonies, or false positive clones, that may be arisen from intact or self-ligated plasmid molecules. To assist in such problem, two plasmids, pBS2ndd and pBS3ndd, which resistant to ampicillin and kanamycin respectively, were developed in this study as more advantageous cloning vector. The plasmids carry ndd, a lethal gene from bacteriophage T4 coding for nucleoid disruption protein that binds to the host chromosome and progressively kill the cell. The deadly toxicity of Ndd inhibits host cells that obtain intact or ndd-religated vector from growing, which results in low background and dramatically reduces the effort for selection of recombinants. Moreover, their identical multiple cloning site was designed to support various cloning strategies. Digestion of plasmids with XcmI allows for in vitro T/A ligation, while with EcoRV permits blunt-end ligation, with capability of blue-white colony screening. In vivo homologous recombination cloning is also utilizable by amplification of insert fragments using primers containing homology arms and transformation into capable E. coli strains. To demonstrate their advantages, the plasmids were used to clone PCR product samples for DNA sequencing with low-background and versatile cloning strategies. Such rapid and cost-effective cloning procedures are also proposed here. Finally, the cloning for protein expression with blue-white selection was also possible using egfp as a model regulated by lac and T7 promoters on the plasmid or other build-in promoters with the insert.

DNA Repair: The Search for Homology

The repair of chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs) by homologous recombination is essential to maintain genome integrity. The key step in DSB repair is the RecA/Rad51-mediated process to match sequences at the broken end to homologous donor sequences that can be used as a template to repair the lesion. Here, in reviewing research about DSB repair, I consider the many factors that appear to play important roles in the successful search for homology by several homologous recombination mechanisms. See also the video abstract here: https://youtu.be/vm7-X5uIzS8.

ATP hydrolysis provides functions that promote rejection of pairings between different copies of long repeated sequences

During DNA recombination and repair, RecA family proteins must promote rapid joining of homologous DNA. Repeated sequences with >100 base pair lengths occupy more than 1% of bacterial genomes; however, commitment to strand exchange was believed to occur after testing ∼20-30 bp. If that were true, pairings between different copies of long repeated sequences would usually become irreversible. Our experiments reveal that in the presence of ATP hydrolysis even 75 bp sequence-matched strand exchange products remain quite reversible. Experiments also indicate that when ATP hydrolysis is present, flanking heterologous dsDNA regions increase the reversibility of sequence matched strand exchange products with lengths up to ∼75 bp. Results of molecular dynamics simulations provide insight into how ATP hydrolysis destabilizes strand exchange products. These results inspired a model that shows how pairings between long repeated sequences could be efficiently rejected even though most homologous pairings form irreversible products.

Balancing gene expression without library construction via a reusable sRNA pool

Balancing protein expression is critical when optimizing genetic systems. Typically, this requires library construction to vary the genetic parts controlling each gene, which can be expensive and time-consuming. Here, we develop sRNAs corresponding to 15nt ‘target’ sequences that can be inserted upstream of a gene. The targeted gene can be repressed from 1.6- to 87-fold by controlling sRNA expression using promoters of different strength. A pool is built where six sRNAs are placed under the control of 16 promoters that span a ∼10³-fold range of strengths, yielding ∼10⁷ combinations. This pool can simultaneously optimize up to six genes in a system. This requires building only a single system-specific construct by placing a target sequence upstream of each gene and transforming it with the pre-built sRNA pool. The resulting library is screened and the top clone is sequenced to determine the promoter controlling each sRNA, from which the fold-repression of the genes can be inferred. The system is then rebuilt by rationally selecting parts that implement the optimal expression of each gene. We demonstrate the versatility of this approach by using the same pool to optimize a metabolic pathway (β-carotene) and genetic circuit (XNOR logic gate).

In vivo cloning of up to 16 kb plasmids in E. coli is as simple as PCR

The precise assembly of defined DNA sequences into plasmids is an essential task in bioscience research. While a number of molecular cloning techniques have been developed, many methods require specialized expensive reagents or laborious experimental procedure. Not surprisingly, conventional cloning techniques based on restriction digestion and ligation are still commonly used in routine DNA cloning. Here, we describe a simple, fast, and economical cloning method based on RecA- and RecET-independent in vivo recombination of DNA fragments with overlapping ends using E. coli. All DNA fragments were prepared by a 2-consecutive PCR procedure with Q5 DNA polymerase and used directly for transformation resulting in 95% cloning accuracy and zero background from parental template plasmids. Quantitative relationships were established between cloning efficiency and three factors–the length of overlapping nucleotides, the number of DNA fragments, and the size of target plasmids–which can provide general guidance for selecting in vivo cloning parameters. The method may be used to accurately assemble up to 5 DNA fragments with 25 nt overlapping ends into relatively small plasmids, and 3 DNA fragments into plasmids up to 16 kb in size. The whole cloning procedure may be completed within 2 days by a researcher with little training in cloning. The combination of high accuracy and zero background eliminates the need for screening a large number of colonies. The method requires no enzymes other than Q5 DNA polymerase, has no sequence restriction, is highly reliable, and represents one of the simplest, fastest, and cheapest cloning techniques available. Our method is particularly suitable for common cloning tasks in the lab where the primary goal is to quickly generate a plasmid with a pre-defined sequence at low costs.

Template-switching during replication fork repair in bacteria

Replication forks frequently are challenged by lesions on the DNA template, replication-impeding DNA secondary structures, tightly bound proteins or nucleotide pool imbalance. Studies in bacteria have suggested that under these circumstances the fork may leave behind single-strand DNA gaps that are subsequently filled by homologous recombination, translesion DNA synthesis or template-switching repair synthesis. This review focuses on the template-switching pathways and how the mechanisms of these processes have been deduced from biochemical and genetic studies. I discuss how template-switching can contribute significantly to genetic instability, including mutational hotspots and frequent genetic rearrangements, and how template-switching may be elicited by replication fork damage.

Duplication-Insertion Recombineering: a fast and scar-free method for efficient transfer of multiple mutations in bacteria

We have developed a new λ Red recombineering methodology for generating transient selection markers that can be used to transfer mutations between bacterial strains of both Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica. The method is fast, simple and allows for the construction of strains with several mutations without any unwanted sequence changes (scar-free). The method uses λ Red recombineering to generate a marker-held tandem duplication, termed Duplication-Insertion (Dup-In). The Dup-Ins can easily be transferred between strains by generalized transduction and are subsequently rapidly lost by homologous recombination between the two copies of the duplicated sequence, leaving no scar sequence or antibiotic resistance cassette behind. We demonstrate the utility of the method by generating several Dup-Ins in E. coli and S. enterica to transfer genetically linked mutations in both essential and non-essential genes. We have successfully used this methodology to re-construct mutants found after various types of selections, and to introduce foreign genes into the two species. Furthermore, recombineering with two overlapping fragments was as efficient as recombineering with the corresponding single large fragment, allowing more complicated constructions without the need for overlap extension PCR.

Plant Mitochondrial Genomes: Dynamics and Mechanisms of Mutation

The large mitochondrial genomes of angiosperms are unusually dynamic because of recombination activities involving repeated sequences. These activities generate subgenomic forms and extensive genomic variation even within the same species. Such changes in genome structure are responsible for the rapid evolution of plant mitochondrial DNA and for the variants associated with cytoplasmic male sterility and abnormal growth phenotypes. Nuclear genes modulate these processes, and over the past decade, several of these genes have been identified. They are involved mainly in pathways of DNA repair by homologous recombination and mismatch repair, which appear to be essential for the faithful replication of the mitogenome. Mutations leading to the loss of any of these activities release error-prone repair pathways, resulting in increased ectopic recombination, genome instability, and heteroplasmy. We review the present state of knowledge of the genes and pathways underlying mitochondrial genome stability.

Effect of Genomic Integration Location on Heterologous Protein Expression and Metabolic Engineering in E. coli

Chromosomal integration offers a selection-free alternative to DNA plasmids for expression of foreign proteins and metabolic pathways. Episomal plasmid DNA is convenient but has drawbacks including increased metabolic burden and the requirement for selection in the form of antibiotics. E. coli has long been used for the expression of foreign proteins and for the production of valuable metabolites by expression of complete metabolic pathways. The gene encoding the fluorescent reporter protein mCherry was integrated into four genomic loci on the E. coli chromosome to measure protein expression at each site. Expression levels ranged from 25% to 500% compared to the gene expressed on a high-copy plasmid. Modular expression of DNA is one of the most commonly used methods for optimizing metabolite production by metabolic engineering. By combining a recently developed method for integration of large synthetic DNA constructs into the genome, we were able to integrate two foreign pathways into the same four genomic loci. We have demonstrated that only one of the genomic loci resulted in the production of violacein, and that all four loci produced trans-cinnamic acid from the TAL pathway.

Properties of Mitotic and Meiotic Recombination in the Tandemly-Repeated CUP1 Gene Cluster in the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the genes encoding the metallothionein protein Cup1 are located in a tandem array on chromosome VIII. Using a diploid strain that is heterozygous for an insertion of a selectable marker (URA3) within this tandem array, and heterozygous for markers flanking the array, we measured interhomolog recombination and intra/sister chromatid exchange in the CUP1 locus. The rate of intra/sister chromatid recombination exceeded the rate of interhomolog recombination by >10-fold. Loss of the Rad51 and Rad52 proteins, required for most interhomolog recombination, led to a relatively small reduction of recombination in the CUP1 array. Although interhomolog mitotic recombination in the CUP1 locus is elevated relative to the average genomic region, we found that interhomolog meiotic recombination in the array is reduced compared to most regions. Lastly, we showed that high levels of copper (previously shown to elevate CUP1 transcription) lead to a substantial elevation in rate of both interhomolog and intra/sister chromatid recombination in the CUP1 array; recombination events that delete the URA3 insertion from the CUP1 array occur at a rate of >10⁻³/division in unselected cells. This rate is almost three orders of magnitude higher than observed for mitotic recombination events involving single-copy genes. In summary, our study shows that some of the basic properties of recombination differ considerably between single-copy and tandemly-repeated genes.

Seamless Ligation Cloning Extract (SLiCE) Method Using Cell Lysates from Laboratory Escherichia coli Strains and its Application to SLiP Site-Directed Mutagenesis

Cell lysates from laboratory Escherichia coli strains endogenously exhibit homologous recombination activity, which can be utilized for seamless DNA cloning in vitro. This method, termed Seamless Ligation Cloning Extract (SLiCE) cloning, enables high cloning efficiency with simultaneous integration of two unpurified DNA fragments into a vector. In addition, the SLiCE method is highly cost-effective, as several laboratory E. coli strains may be utilized as sources of SLiCE. Previously, the SLiCE technique has been applied to site-directed mutagenesis to develop a novel technique termed SLiCE-mediated polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based site-directed mutagenesis (SLiP site-directed mutagenesis). Two DNA fragments containing a mutation site can be simultaneously integrated into a vector while avoiding the introduction of undesirable mutations in the vector. Therefore, SLiP site-directed mutagenesis simplifies multiple procedures involved in PCR-based site-directed mutagenesis such as overlap extension method PCR or the Megaprimer method.

Duplication of chicken defensin7 gene generated by gene conversion and homologous recombination

Defensins constitute an evolutionary conserved family of cationic antimicrobial peptides that play a key role in host innate immune responses to infection. Defensin genes generally reside in complex genomic regions that are prone to structural variation, and defensin genes exhibit extensive copy number variation in humans and in other species. Copy number variation of defensin genes was examined in inbred lines of Leghorn and Fayoumi chickens, and a duplication of defensin7 was discovered in the Fayoumi breed. Analysis of junction sequences confirmed the occurrence of a simple tandem duplication of defensin7 with sequence identity at the junction, suggesting nonallelic homologous recombination between defensin7 and defensin6 The duplication event generated two chimeric promoters that are best explained by gene conversion followed by homologous recombination. Expression of defensin7 was not elevated in animals with two genes despite both genes being transcribed in the tissues examined. Computational prediction of promoter regions revealed the presence of several putative transcription factor binding sites generated by the duplication event. These data provide insight into the evolution and possible function of large gene families and specifically, the defensins.

Tolerance of lesions in E. coli: Chronological competition between Translesion Synthesis and Damage Avoidance

Lesion tolerance pathways allow cells to proceed with replication despite the presence of replication-blocking lesions in their genome. Following transient fork stalling, replication resumes downstream leaving daughter strand gaps opposite replication-blocking lesions. The existence and repair of these gaps have been know for decades and are commonly referred to as postreplicative repair [39,38] (Rupp, 2013; Rupp and Howard-Flanders, 1968). This paper analyzes the interaction of the pathways involved in the repair of these gaps. A key repair intermediated is formed when RecA protein binds to these gaps forming ssDNA.RecA filaments establishing the so-called SOS signal. The gaps are either "repaired" by Translesion Synthesis (TLS), a process that involves the transient recruitment of a specialized DNA polymerase that copies the lesion with an intrinsic risk of fixing a mutation opposite the lesion site, or by Damage Avoidance, an error-free pathway that involves homologous recombination with the sister chromatid (Homology Directed Gap Repair: HDGR). We have developed an assay that allows one to study the partition between TLS and HDGR in the context of a single replication-blocking lesion present in the E. coli chromosome. The level of expression of the TLS polymerases controls the extent of TLS. Our data show that TLS is implemented first with great parsimony, followed by abundant recombination-based tolerance events. Indeed, the substrate for TLS, i.e., the ssDNA.RecA filament, persists for only a limited amount of time before it engages in an early recombination intermediates (D-loop) with the sister chromatid. Time-based competition between TLS and HDGR is set by mere sequestration of the TLS substrates into early recombination intermediates. Most gaps are subsequently repaired by Homology Directed Gap Repair (HDGR), a pathway that involves RecA. Surprisingly, however, in the absence of RecA, some cells manage to divide and form colonies at the expense of losing the damage-containing chromatid.

Bacterial Proliferation: Keep Dividing and Don't Mind the Gap

DNA Damage Tolerance (DDT) mechanisms help dealing with unrepaired DNA lesions that block replication and challenge genome integrity. Previous in vitro studies showed that the bacterial replicase is able to re-prime downstream of a DNA lesion, leaving behind a single-stranded DNA gap. The question remains of what happens to this gap in vivo. Following the insertion of a single lesion in the chromosome of a living cell, we showed that this gap is mostly filled in by Homology Directed Gap Repair in a RecA dependent manner. When cells fail to repair this gap, or when homologous recombination is impaired, cells are still able to divide, leading to the loss of the damaged chromatid, suggesting that bacteria lack a stringent cell division checkpoint mechanism. Hence, at the expense of losing one chromatid, cell survival and proliferation are ensured.

DNA Damage Tolerance (DDT) mechanisms help dealing with unrepaired DNA lesions that block replication, thus challenging genome integrity. Two DDT mechanisms have previously been described: error prone Translesion Synthesis operated by specialized DNA polymerases and error free bypass that uses the information of the sister chromatid to bypass the lesion. In this work, we set up a novel genetic system that allows to insert a single DNA blocking lesion in the chromosome of a living cell and to visualize the exchange of genetic information between the undamaged and the damaged strand. Using this system, we showed in vivo that the replication fork is able to re-prime downstream of the lesion, leaving a gap. This gap is mostly filled in by the error free pathway through the RecA homologous recombination mechanism. We show that when the gap is left unrepaired, cells are still able to divide by losing the damaged chromatid, which evidences the lack of a stringent cell division checkpoint system.