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Moriwaki T, Abe S, Oshimura M, Kazuki Y. Transchromosomic technology for genomically humanized animals. Exp Cell Res 2020; 390:111914. [PMID: 32142854 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2020.111914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
"Genomically" humanized animals are invaluable tools for generating human disease models and for biomedical research. Humanized animal models have generally been developed via conventional transgenic technologies; however, conventional gene delivery vectors such as viruses, plasmids, bacterial artificial chromosomes, P1 phase-derived artificial chromosomes, and yeast artificial chromosomes have limitations for transgenic animal creation as their loading gene capacity is restricted, and the expression of transgenes is unstable. Transchromosomic (Tc) techniques using mammalian artificial chromosomes, including human chromosome fragments, human artificial chromosomes, and mouse artificial chromosomes, have overcome these limitations. These tools can carry multiple genes or Mb-sized genomic loci and their associated regulatory elements, which has facilitated the creation of more useful and complex transgenic models for human disease, drug development, and humanized animal research. This review describes the history of Tc animal development, the applications of Tc animals, and future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Moriwaki
- Department of Biomedical Science, Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School of Medical Science, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan
| | - Satoshi Abe
- Trans Chromosomics, Inc., 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Oshimura
- Trans Chromosomics, Inc., 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan; Chromosome Engineering Research Center (CERC), Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Kazuki
- Department of Biomedical Science, Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School of Medical Science, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan; Chromosome Engineering Research Center (CERC), Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan.
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2
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Chromosome transplantation as a novel approach for correcting complex genomic disorders. Oncotarget 2016; 6:35218-30. [PMID: 26485770 PMCID: PMC4742100 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.6143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Genomic disorders resulting from large rearrangements of the genome remain an important unsolved issue in gene therapy. Chromosome transplantation, defined as the perfect replacement of an endogenous chromosome with a homologous one, has the potential of curing this kind of disorders. Here we report the first successful case of chromosome transplantation by replacement of an endogenous X chromosome carrying a mutation in the Hprt gene with a normal one in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs), correcting the genetic defect. The defect was also corrected by replacing the Y chromosome with an X chromosome. Chromosome transplanted clones maintained in vitro and in vivo features of stemness and contributed to chimera formation. Genome integrity was confirmed by cytogenetic and molecular genome analysis. The approach here proposed, with some modifications, might be used to cure various disorders due to other X chromosome aberrations in induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells derived from affected patients.
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3
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Oshimura M, Uno N, Kazuki Y, Katoh M, Inoue T. A pathway from chromosome transfer to engineering resulting in human and mouse artificial chromosomes for a variety of applications to bio-medical challenges. Chromosome Res 2015; 23:111-33. [PMID: 25657031 PMCID: PMC4365188 DOI: 10.1007/s10577-014-9459-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Microcell-mediated chromosome transfer (MMCT) is a technique to transfer a chromosome from defined donor cells into recipient cells and to manipulate chromosomes as gene delivery vectors and open a new avenue in somatic cell genetics. However, it is difficult to uncover the function of a single specific gene via the transfer of an entire chromosome or fragment, because each chromosome or fragment contains a set of numerous genes. Thus, alternative tools are human artificial chromosome (HAC) and mouse artificial chromosome (MAC) vectors, which can carry a gene or genes of interest. HACs/MACs have been generated mainly by either a "top-down approach" (engineered creation) or a "bottom-up approach" (de novo creation). HACs/MACs with one or more acceptor sites exhibit several characteristics required by an ideal gene delivery vector, including stable episomal maintenance and the capacity to carry large genomic loci plus their regulatory elements, thus allowing the physiological regulation of the introduced gene in a manner similar to that of native chromosomes. The MMCT technique is also applied for manipulating HACs and MACs in donor cells and delivering them to recipient cells. This review describes the lessons learned and prospects identified from studies on the construction of HACs and MACs, and their ability to drive exogenous gene expression in cultured cells and transgenic animals via MMCT. New avenues for a variety of applications to bio-medical challenges are also proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuo Oshimura
- Chromosome Engineering Research Center, Tottori University, 86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori, 683-8503, Japan,
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4
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Takiguchi M, Kazuki Y, Hiramatsu K, Abe S, Iida Y, Takehara S, Nishida T, Ohbayashi T, Wakayama T, Oshimura M. A novel and stable mouse artificial chromosome vector. ACS Synth Biol 2014; 3:903-14. [PMID: 23654256 DOI: 10.1021/sb3000723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Human chromosome fragments (hCFs) and human artificial chromosomes (HACs) can be transferred into mouse ES cells to produce trans-chromosomic (Tc) mice. Although hCFs and HACs containing large genomic DNAs can be autonomously maintained in Tc mice, their retention rate is variable in mouse ES cell lines and Tc mouse tissues, possibly because of centromere differences between the species. To improve the retention rate of artificial chromosomes in mouse cells, we constructed novel mouse artificial chromosome (MAC) vectors by truncating a natural mouse chromosome at a site adjacent to the centromeric region. We obtained cell clones containing the MAC vectors that were stably maintained in mouse ES cells and various tissues in Tc mice. The MACs possess acceptor sites into which a desired gene or genes can be inserted. Thus, Tc mice harboring the MAC vectors may be valuable tools for functional analyses of desired genes, producing humanized model mice, and synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masato Takiguchi
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Kazuki
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
- Chromosome Engineering Research
Center, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Kei Hiramatsu
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
| | - Satoshi Abe
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
| | - Yuichi Iida
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
| | - Shoko Takehara
- Chromosome Engineering Research
Center, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Tadashi Nishida
- Division of Laboratory Animal
Science, Research Center for Bioscience and Technology, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Ohbayashi
- Division of Laboratory Animal
Science, Research Center for Bioscience and Technology, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
| | - Teruhiko Wakayama
- RIKEN Center for Developmental Biology, 2-2-3 minatojima Minamimachi
Chuo-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 650-0047, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Oshimura
- Department
of Biomedical Science,
Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School
of Medical Science, Tottori University,
86 Nishi-cho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
- Chromosome Engineering Research
Center, Tottori University, Tottori, Japan
- JST, CREST, 5, Sanbancho, Tokyo, Japan
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Lufino MMP, Edser PAH, Wade-Martins R. Advances in high-capacity extrachromosomal vector technology: episomal maintenance, vector delivery, and transgene expression. Mol Ther 2008; 16:1525-38. [PMID: 18628754 DOI: 10.1038/mt.2008.156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent developments in extrachromosomal vector technology have offered new ways of designing safer, physiologically regulated vectors for gene therapy. Extrachromosomal, or episomal, persistence in the nucleus of transduced cells offers a safer alternative to integrating vectors which have become the subject of safety concerns following serious adverse events in recent clinical trials. Extrachromosomal vectors do not cause physical disruption in the host genome, making these vectors safe and suitable tools for several gene therapy targets, including stem cells. Moreover, the high insert capacity of extrachromosomal vectors allows expression of a therapeutic transgene from the context of its genomic DNA sequence, providing an elegant way to express normal splice variants and achieve physiologically regulated levels of expression. Here, we describe past and recent advances in the development of several different extrachromosomal systems, discuss their retention mechanisms, and evaluate their use as expression vectors to deliver and express genomic DNA loci. We also discuss a variety of delivery systems, viral and nonviral, which have been used to deliver episomal vectors to target cells in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we explore the potential for the delivery and expression of extrachromosomal transgenes in stem cells. The long-term persistence of extrachromosomal vectors combined with the potential for stem cell proliferation and differentiation into a wide range of cell types offers an exciting prospect for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele M P Lufino
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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6
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Oshimura M, Katoh M. Transfer of human artificial chromosome vectors into stem cells. Reprod Biomed Online 2008; 16:57-69. [PMID: 18252049 DOI: 10.1016/s1472-6483(10)60557-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human chromosome fragments and human artificial chromosomes (HAC) represent feasible gene delivery vectors via microcell-mediated chromosome transfer. Strategies to construct HAC involve either 'build up' or 'top-down' approaches. For each approach, techniques for manipulating HAC in donor cells in order to deliver HAC to recipient cells are required. The combination of chromosome fragments or HAC with microcell-mediated chromosome transfer has facilitated human gene mapping and various genetic studies. The recent emergence of stem cell-based tissue engineering has opened up new avenues for gene and cell therapies. The task now is to develop safe and effective vectors that can deliver therapeutic genes into specific stem cells and maintain long-term regulated expression of these genes. Although the transfer-efficiency needs to be improved, HAC possess several characteristics that are required for gene therapy vectors, including stable episomal maintenance and the capacity for large gene insets. HAC can also carry genomic loci with regulatory elements, which allow for the expression of transgenes in a genetic environment similar to the natural chromosome. This review describes the lessons and prospects learned, mainly from recent studies in developing HAC and HAC-mediated gene expression in embryonic and adult stem cells, and in transgenic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuo Oshimura
- Department of Biomedical Science, Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction, Graduate School of Medical Science, Tottori University, 86 Nishicho, Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan.
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7
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Ren X, Tahimic CGT, Katoh M, Kurimasa A, Inoue T, Oshimura M. Human artificial chromosome vectors meet stem cells: new prospects for gene delivery. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 2:43-50. [PMID: 17142886 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-006-0008-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/1999] [Revised: 11/30/1999] [Accepted: 11/30/1999] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The recent emergence of stem cell-based tissue engineering has now opened up new venues for gene therapy. The task now is to develop safe and effective vectors that can deliver therapeutic genes into specific stem cell lines and maintain long-term regulated expression of these genes. Human artificial chromosomes (HACs) possess several characteristics that require gene therapy vectors, including a stable episomal maintenance, and the capacity for large gene inserts. HACs can also carry genomic loci with regulatory elements, thus allowing for the expression of transgenes in a genetic environment similar to the chromosome. Currently, HACs are constructed by a two prone approaches. Using a top-down strategy, HACs can be generated from fragmenting endogenous chromosomes. By a bottom-up strategy, HACs can be created de novo from cloned chromosomal components using chromosome engineering. This review describes the current advances in developing HACs, with the main focus on their applications and potential value in gene delivery, such as HAC-mediated gene expression in embryonic, adult stem cells, and transgenic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianying Ren
- Department of Biomedical Science, Institute of Regenerative Medicine and Biofunction,Tottori University, 86 Nishicho,Yonago, Tottori 683-8503, Japan
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8
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Suzuki N, Nishii K, Okazaki T, Ikeno M. Human Artificial Chromosomes Constructed Using the Bottom-up Strategy Are Stably Maintained in Mitosis and Efficiently Transmissible to Progeny Mice. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:26615-23. [PMID: 16837455 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m603053200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human artificial chromosomes (HACs) are alternative vectors that promise to overcome problematic transgene expression often occurring with conventional vectors in mammalian cells and bodies. We have successfully generated HACs by multimerization of a cloned long alphoid stretch in a human cell line, HT1080. Furthermore, we developed technologies for cloning large genomic regions into HACs by means of co-transfection of clones with the alphoid array and clones encoding the genomic region of interest. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mitotic and meiotic stability of such HACs in mouse cells and bodies. We transferred a circular HAC containing the guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase I gene (GCH1-HAC) and a linear HAC containing the human globin gene cluster (globin-HAC) from HT1080 cells into mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells by microcell-mediated chromosome transfer. The HACs were stably maintained in mouse ES cells for 3 months. GCH1-HACs in every ES cell line and globin-HACs in most ES cell lines maintained their structures without detectable rearrangement or acquisition of mouse genomic DNA except one globin-HAC in an ES cell line rearranged and acquired mouse-type centromeric sequences and long telomeres. Creation of chimeric mice using ES cells containing HAC and subsequent crossing showed that both the globin-HAC that had rearranged and acquired mouse type centromeric sequences/long telomeres and GCH1-HACs were retained in tissues of mice and transmitted to progeny. These results indicate that human artificial chromosomes constructed using the bottom-up strategy based on alphoid DNA are stable in mouse bodies and are transmissible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nobutaka Suzuki
- Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, Japan
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9
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Malla S, Dafhnis-Calas F, Brookfield JFY, Smith MCM, Brown WRA. Rearranging the centromere of the human Y chromosome with phiC31 integrase. Nucleic Acids Res 2005; 33:6101-13. [PMID: 16246911 PMCID: PMC1266074 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gki922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We have investigated the ability of the integrase from the Streptomyces φC31 ‘phage to either delete or invert 1 Mb of DNA around the centromere of the human Y chromosome in chicken DT40 hybrid somatic cells. Reciprocal and conservative site-specific recombination was observed in 54% of cells expressing the integrase. The sites failed to recombine in the remaining cells because the sites had been damaged. The sequences of the damaged sites indicated that the damage arose as a result of repair of recombination intermediates by host cell pathways. The liability of recombination intermediates to damage is consistent with what is known about the mechanism of serine recombinase reactions. The structures of the products of the chromosome rearrangements were consistent with the published sequence of the Y chromosome indicating that the assembly of the highly repeated region between the sites is accurate to a resolution of about 50 kb. Mini-chromosomes lacking a centromere were not recovered which also suggested that neo-centromere formation occurs infrequently in vertebrate somatic cells. No ectopic recombination was observed between a φC31 integrase attB site and the chicken genome.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - William R. A. Brown
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +441158493244; Fax: +441159709906;
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10
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Irvine DV, Shaw ML, Choo KHA, Saffery R. Engineering chromosomes for delivery of therapeutic genes. Trends Biotechnol 2005; 23:575-83. [PMID: 16242803 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2005] [Revised: 06/03/2005] [Accepted: 10/06/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The ability to create fully functional human chromosome vectors represents a potentially exciting gene-delivery system for the correction of human genetic disorders with several advantages over viral delivery systems. However, for the full potential of chromosome-based gene-delivery vectors to be realized, several key obstacles must be overcome. Methods must be developed to insert therapeutic genes reliably and efficiently and to enable the stable transfer of the resulting chromosomal vectors to different therapeutic cell types. Research to achieve these outcomes continues to encounter major challenges; however recent developments have reiterated the potential of chromosome-based vectors for therapeutic gene delivery. Here we review the different strategies under development and discuss the advantages and problems associated with each.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle V Irvine
- Chromosome Research Group, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Flemington Road, Parkville 3052, Australia
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11
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Wong LH, Saffery R, Anderson MA, Earle E, Quach JM, Stafford AJ, Fowler KJ, Choo KHA. Analysis of mitotic and expression properties of human neocentromere-based transchromosomes in mice. J Biol Chem 2004; 280:3954-62. [PMID: 15557333 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m410047200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human neocentromeres are functional centromeres that are devoid of the typical human centromeric alpha-satellite DNA. We have transferred a 60-Mb chromosome 10-derived neocentric marker chromosome, mardel(10), and its truncated 3.5-Mb derivative, NC-MiC1, into mouse embryonic stem cell and have demonstrated a relatively high structural and mitotic stability of the transchromosomes in a heterologous genetic background. We have also produced chimeric mice carrying mardel(10) or NC-MiC1. Both transchromosomes were detected as intact episomal entities in a variety of adult chimeric mouse tissues including hemopoietic stem cells. Genes residing on these transchromosomes were expressed in the different tissues tested. Meiotic transmission of both transchromosomes in the chimeric mice was evident from the detection of DNA from these chromosomes in sperm samples. In particular, germ line transmission of NC-MiC1 was demonstrated in the F1 embryos of the chimeric mice. Variable (low in mardel(10)- or NC-MiC1-containing embryonic stem cells and chimeric mouse tissues and relatively high in NC-MiC1-containing F1 embryos) levels of missegregation of these transchromosomes were detected, suggesting that they are not optimally predisposed to full mitotic regulation in the mouse background, particularly during early embryogenesis. These results provide promising data in support of the potential use of neocentromere-based human marker chromosomes and minichromosomes as a tool for the study of centromere, neocentromere, and chromosome biology and for gene therapy studies in a mouse model system. They also highlight the need to further understand and overcome the factors that are responsible for the definable rates of instability of these transchromosomes in a mouse model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee H Wong
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute & Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Royal Children's Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville 3052, Victoria, Australia
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Zeng K, de las Heras JI, Ross A, Yang J, Cooke H, Shen MH. Localisation of centromeric proteins to a fraction of mouse minor satellite DNA on a mini-chromosome in human, mouse and chicken cells. Chromosoma 2004; 113:84-91. [PMID: 15300445 DOI: 10.1007/s00412-004-0299-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2004] [Revised: 06/08/2004] [Accepted: 06/09/2004] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Centromeres are required for faithful segregation of chromosomes in cell division. It is not clear how centromere sites are specified on chromosomes in vertebrates. We have previously introduced a mini-chromosome, named ST1, into a variety of cell lines including human HT1080, mouse LA9 and chicken DT40. This mini-chromosome, segregating faithfully in these cells, contains mouse minor and major, and human Y alpha-satellite DNA repeats. In this study, after determining the organisation of the satellite repeats, we investigated the location of the centromere on the mini-chromosome by combined immunocytochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridisation analysis. Centromeric proteins were consistently co-localised with the minor satellite repeats in all three cell lines. When chromatin fibres were highly stretched, centromeric proteins were only seen on a small portion of the minor satellite repeats. These results indicate that a fraction of the minor satellite repeats is competent in centromere function not only in mouse but also in human and chicken cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kang Zeng
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road, Edinburgh, EH4 2XU, UK
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13
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Alazami AM, Mejía JE, Monaco ZL. Human artificial chromosomes containing chromosome 17 alphoid DNA maintain an active centromere in murine cells but are not stable. Genomics 2004; 83:844-51. [PMID: 15081114 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2003.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2003] [Revised: 11/13/2003] [Accepted: 11/14/2003] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Human artificial chromosomes (HACs) are autonomous molecules that can function and segregate as normal chromosomes in human cells. De novo HACs have successfully been used as gene expression vectors to complement genetic deficiencies in human cultured cells. HACs now offer the possibility of studying the regulation and expression of large genes in a variety of cell types from different tissues and correcting gene deficiencies caused by human inherited diseases. Complementary gene expression studies in mice, especially in mouse models of human genetic diseases, are also important in determining if large human transgenes can be expressed appropriately from artificial chromosomes. Toward this aim we are establishing artificial chromosomes in murine cells as novel gene expression vectors. Initially we transferred HAC vectors into murine cells, but were unable to generate de novo HACs at a reasonable frequency. We then transferred HACs previously established in human HT1080 cells to three different murine cell types by microcell fusion, followed by positive selection. We observed that the HACs in murine cells bound centromere protein C (CENP-C), a marker of active centromeres, and were detected under selection but rapidly lost when selection was removed. These results suggest that the HACs maintain at least a partially functional centromere complex in murine cells, but other factors are required for stability and segregation. Artificial chromosomes containing mouse centromeric sequences may be required for better stability and maintenance in murine cells.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Fusion
- Cell Line
- Centromere/genetics
- Centromere/metabolism
- Chromosomal Instability/genetics
- Chromosomal Proteins, Non-Histone/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/genetics
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 17/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 17/metabolism
- Clone Cells/metabolism
- DNA/genetics
- DNA/metabolism
- Fluorescent Antibody Technique
- Genetic Vectors/genetics
- Humans
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Metaphase
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Anas M Alazami
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headley Way, Oxford OX3 9DS, United Kingdom
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14
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Oberle V, de Jong G, Drayer JI, Hoekstra D. Efficient transfer of chromosome-based DNA constructs into mammalian cells. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 1676:223-30. [PMID: 14984928 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbaexp.2003.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2003] [Revised: 12/15/2003] [Accepted: 12/15/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Artificial chromosomes, engineered minichromosomes and other chromosome-based DNA constructs are promising new vectors for use in gene therapy, protein production and transgenics. However, a major drawback in the application of chromosome-based DNA is the lack of a suitable and convenient procedure for large-scale cellular introduction, which is particularly frustrated by their size (1 by 2 microm). Here we present a method to transfer Artificial Chromosome Expression systems (ACEs) into mammalian cells, which relies on a combined approach of using cationic amphiphiles and high frequency ultrasound. Thus, when cells were preincubated with liposomes consisting of the cationic lipid SAINT-2 and the phospholipid dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (molar ratio 1:1), followed by ultrasound, ACEs could be introduced into mammalian cells, which resulted in the expression of ACEs-harbored reporter genes, such as Green Fluorescent Protein. Depending on cell type, transfection efficiencies ranged from 12% to 53%. Interestingly, no detectable delivery occurred when cells were treated alone with either ultrasound or liposomes. Evidence is provided, based on cellular entry of differently sized beads and trypan-blue permeation, which supports a mechanism in which integration of the lipids creates unstable membrane domains, which are particularly prone to ultrasound-induced pore formation. Time- and temperature-dependent experiments indicate that these pores display a transient stability. Hence, following ultrasound, the pores disappear as a function of time as suggested by a time-window for ACEs entry, and trypan blue exclusion, 80% of the cells becoming stained immediately following ultrasound, dropping to approximately 20% after 30 min. Co-expression of different genes in conjunction with fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis indicates that the current procedure provides a means to introduce functionally active artificial chromosomes into eukaryotic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Oberle
- Department of Membrane Cell Biology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
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15
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Ikeno M, Inagaki H, Nagata K, Morita M, Ichinose H, Okazaki T. Generation of human artificial chromosomes expressing naturally controlled guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase I gene. Genes Cells 2002; 7:1021-32. [PMID: 12354096 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2443.2002.00580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human artificial chromosomes (HACs) are generated from the precursor DNA constructs containing alpha-satellite DNA with CENP-B boxes, and the process could be used for the incorporation of large genes in the HACs. Guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase I (GCH1) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin, the essential co-factor of aromatic amino acid hydroxylases and nitric oxide synthase. RESULTS We constructed HACs carrying a 180 kb genome segment encoding the human GCH1 gene and its control region from the bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) with the GCH1 segment by co-transfection with the alpha-satellite DNA-containing BAC to a human fibroblast cell line. Two cell lines carrying a HAC with GCH1 genes were obtained. Both HACs were composed of multiple copies of precursor BACs and were maintained stably in human and mouse cell lines. The GCH1 activities of the HAC-carrying human fibroblast cell lines were elevated but still highly sensitive to IFN-gamma induction, mimicking the response of the gene expression from the authentic chromosomal genes. CONCLUSION These HACs will provide a useful system for analysis of the complex regulatory circuit of the GCH1 gene in vivo and also function as a tool for gene delivery in animal models or in therapeutic trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masashi Ikeno
- Institute for Comprehensive Medical Science, Fujita Health University, Toyoake, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
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16
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Kuroiwa Y, Kasinathan P, Choi YJ, Naeem R, Tomizuka K, Sullivan EJ, Knott JG, Duteau A, Goldsby RA, Osborne BA, Ishida I, Robl JM. Cloned transchromosomic calves producing human immunoglobulin. Nat Biotechnol 2002; 20:889-94. [PMID: 12172556 DOI: 10.1038/nbt727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Human polyclonal antibodies (hPABs) are useful therapeutics, but because they are available only from human donors, their supply and application is limited. To address this need, we prepared a human artificial chromosome (HAC) vector containing the entire unrearranged sequences of the human immunoglobulin (hIg) heavy-chain (H) and lambda (lambda) light-chain loci. The HAC vector was introduced into bovine primary fetal fibroblasts using a microcell-mediated chromosome transfer (MMCT) approach. Primary selection was carried out, and the cells were used to produce cloned bovine fetuses. Secondary selection was done on the regenerated fetal cell lines, which were then used to produce four healthy transchromosomic (Tc) calves. The HAC was retained at a high rate (78-100% of cells) in calves and the hIg loci underwent rearrangement and expressed diversified transcripts. Human immunoglobulin proteins were detected in the blood of newborn calves. The production of Tc calves is an important step in the development of a system for producing therapeutic hPABs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimi Kuroiwa
- Pharmaceutical Research Laboratory, Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd., 3 Miyahara-cho, Takasaki-shi, Gunma 370-1295, Japan
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17
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Grimes BR, Rhoades AA, Willard HF. Alpha-satellite DNA and vector composition influence rates of human artificial chromosome formation. Mol Ther 2002; 5:798-805. [PMID: 12027565 DOI: 10.1006/mthe.2002.0612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human artificial chromosomes (HACs) have been proposed as a new class of potential gene transfer and gene therapy vector. HACs can be formed when bacterial cloning vectors containing alpha-satellite DNA are transfected into cultured human cells. We have compared the HAC-forming potential of different sequences to identify features critical to the efficiency of the process. Chromosome 17 or 21 alpha-satellite arrays are highly competent HAC-forming substrates in this assay. In contrast, a Y-chromosome-derived alpha-satellite sequence is inefficient, suggesting that centromere specification is at least partly dependent on DNA sequence. The length of the input array is also an important determinant, as reduction of the chromosome-17-based array from 80 kb to 35 kb reduced the frequency of HAC formation. In addition to the alpha-satellite component, vector composition also influenced HAC formation rates, size, and copy number. The data presented here have a significant impact on the design of future HAC vectors that have potential to be developed for therapeutic applications and as tools for investigating human chromosome structure and function.
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MESH Headings
- Cell Line
- Centromere/physiology
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/genetics
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/physiology
- Chromosomes, Human, Pair 21
- Chromosomes, Human, Y
- Cytogenetic Analysis
- DNA, Satellite/genetics
- Genetic Vectors
- Humans
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Kinetochores/physiology
- Mitosis
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda R Grimes
- Department of Genetics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, and Center for Human Genetics and Research Institute, University Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
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18
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Kuroiwa Y, Yoshida H, Ohshima T, Shinohara T, Ohguma A, Kazuki Y, Oshimura M, Ishida I, Tomizuka K. The use of chromosome-based vectors for animal transgenesis. Gene Ther 2002; 9:708-12. [PMID: 12032693 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3301754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This article summarizes our efforts to use chromosome-based vectors for animal transgenesis, which may have a benefit for overcoming the size constraints of cloned transgenes in conventional techniques. Since the initial trial for introducing naturally occurring human chromosome fragments (hCFs) with large and complex immunogulobulin (Ig) loci into mice we have obtained several lines of trans-chromosomic (Tc) mice with transmittable hCFs. As expected the normal tissue-specific expression of introduced human genes was reproduced in them by inclusion of essential remote regulatory elements. Recent development of 'chromosome cloning' technique that enable construction of human artificial chromosomes (HACs) containing a defined chromosomal region should prevent the introduction of additional genes other than genes of interest and thus enhance the utility of chromosome vector system. Using this technique a panel of HACs harboring inserts ranging in size from 1.5 to 10 Mb from three human chromosomes (hChr2, 7, 22) has been constructed. Tc animals containing the HACs may be valuable not only as a powerful tool for functional genomics but also as an in vivo model to study therapeutic gene delivery by HACs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kuroiwa
- Pharmaceutical Research Laboratory, Kirin Brewery Co Ltd, Gunma, Japan
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19
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Abstract
Human artificial chromosome (HAC) technology has developed rapidly over the past four years. Recent reports show that HACs are useful gene transfer vectors in expression studies and important tools for determining human chromosome function. HACs have been used to complement gene deficiencies in human cultured cells by transfer of large genomic loci also containing the regulatory elements for appropriate expression. And, they now offer the possibility to express large human transgenes in animals, especially in mouse models of human genetic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoia Larin
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.
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20
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Abstract
Recent advances in chromosome engineering and the potential for downstream applications in gene therapy were presented at the Artificial Chromosome Session of Genome Medicine: Gene Therapy for the Millennium in Rome, Italy in September 2001. This session concentrated primarily on the structure and function of human centromeres and the ongoing challenge of equipping human artificial chromosomes (HACs) with centromeres to ensure their mitotic stability. Advances in the 'bottom up' construction of HACs included the transfer into HT1080 cells of circular PACs containing alpha satellite DNA, and the correction of HPRT deficiency in cells using HACs. Advances in the 'top down' construction of HACs using telomere associated chromosome fragmentation in DT40 cells included the formation of HACs that are less than a megabase in size and transfer of HACs through the mouse germline. Significant progress has also been made in the use of human minichromosomes for stable trans-gene expression. While many obstacles remain towards the use of HACs for gene therapy, this session provided an optimistic outlook for future success.
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Affiliation(s)
- B R Grimes
- Department of Genetics, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University and University Hospital of Cleveland, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
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21
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Saffery R, Choo KHA. Strategies for engineering human chromosomes with therapeutic potential. J Gene Med 2002; 4:5-13. [PMID: 11828382 DOI: 10.1002/jgm.236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Human engineered chromosomes (HECs) have several potential advantages over currently used vectors for gene therapy applications. Firstly, there is no upper size limit to DNA that can be cloned in these vectors. Secondly, their extrachromosomal nature ensures that introduced genes are neither disruptive to, nor affected by, the genome of the host cell. Finally, being solely human in origin, HEC vectors should not evoke adverse host immunogenic responses. Recent advances have produced a variety of HECs via several different approaches. This review focuses on the current methodologies for making HEC vectors, the advantages and problems associated with each strategy, and discusses the outlook for HEC vectors as ex vivo therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Saffery
- Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Royal Childrens Hospital, Flemington Road, Parkville 3052, Australia.
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22
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Abstract
Embryonic stem cells are derived from the inner cell mass of the pre-implantation blastocyst, and can both self-renew and differentiate into all the cells and tissues of the body. The embryonic stem cell is an unsurpassed starting material to begin to understand a critical, largely inaccessible, period of development, as well as an important source of cells for transplantation and gene therapy. Despite their potential, attempts to obtain specific cell types from embryonic stem cells have been only partially successful because many of the growth factor combinations and developmental control genes involved in cell type restricted differentiation are unknown. This article summarizes some of the recent advances in promoting lineage restricted differentiation of embryonic stem cells, focusing on growth factor manipulation, or genetically altering embryonic stem cells to produce a desired phenotype. The two approaches epitomize current scientific concerns regarding the therapeutic use of these cells; genetic alterations will produce more pure cells with the risk of increasing the likelihood of malignant transformation; epigenetic methods for the manipulation of stem cell phenotype are often incomplete and remaining pluripotent cells are likely to form teratomas. As more is known about lineage specification during development, it will be possible to more precisely control cell type specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S O'Shea
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-0616, USA.
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23
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Saffery R, Wong LH, Irvine DV, Bateman MA, Griffiths B, Cutts SM, Cancilla MR, Cendron AC, Stafford AJ, Choo KH. Construction of neocentromere-based human minichromosomes by telomere-associated chromosomal truncation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98:5705-10. [PMID: 11331754 PMCID: PMC33277 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.091468498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2000] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Neocentromeres (NCs) are fully functional centromeres that arise ectopically in noncentromeric regions lacking alpha-satellite DNA. Using telomere-associated chromosome truncation, we have produced a series of minichromosomes (MiCs) from a mardel(10) marker chromosome containing a previously characterized human NC. These MiCs range in size from approximately 0.7 to 1.8 Mb and contain single-copy intact genomic DNA from the 10q25 region. Two of these NC-based Mi-Cs (NC-MiCs) appear circular whereas one is linear. All demonstrate stability in both structure and mitotic transmission in the absence of drug selection. Presence of a functional NC is shown by binding a host of key centromere-associated proteins. These NC-MiCs provide direct evidence for mitotic segregation function of the NC DNA and represent examples of stable mammalian MiCs lacking centromeric repeats.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Saffery
- The Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Royal Children's Hospital, Flemington Road, Melbourne 3052, Australia
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24
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Shinohara T, Tomizuka K, Takehara S, Yamauchi K, Katoh M, Ohguma A, Ishida I, Oshimura M. Stability of transferred human chromosome fragments in cultured cells and in mice. Chromosome Res 2001; 8:713-25. [PMID: 11196134 DOI: 10.1023/a:1026741321193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Chromosome fragments represent feasible gene delivery vectors with the use of microcell-mediated chromosome transfer. To test a prerequisite for a gene delivery vector, we examined the stability of human chromosome fragments (hCFs) in cultured cells and in trans-chromosomic (Tc) mice. Fragments of human chromosomes 2 (hCF(2-W23)), 11 (hCF-11) and 14 (hCF(SC20)) tagged with neo were introduced into the TT2F mouse ES cells, and retention of the hCFs was examined by FISH during long-term culture without selection. In contrast to the gradual loss of hCF(2-W23) and hCF-11, hCF(SC20) remained stable over 70 population doublings in the ES cells. The hCF(SC20) was also stable in cultured human tumor cells and chicken DT40 cells. We have previously generated chimeric mice using the ES cells harboring the hCF(2-W23) or hCF(SC20), followed by production of Tc mice. Although both the hCF(2-W23) and hCF(SC20) persisted in cells of Tc mice as an additional chromosome and were transmitted to offspring, the hCF(SC20) was more stable than the hCF(2-W23) in F1 and F2 mice. The present study shows that the stability of hCFs in Tc mice differs with tissue types and with genetic background used for successive breedings. Thus, the hCF(SC20), which was relatively stable in both mouse and human cells, may be a promising candidate for development as a gene delivery vector.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cells, Cultured
- Chickens
- Chimera/genetics
- Chimera/metabolism
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/genetics
- Chromosomes, Artificial, Human/metabolism
- Crosses, Genetic
- Female
- Genetic Vectors
- Humans
- Hybrid Cells/cytology
- Hybrid Cells/metabolism
- In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence
- Karyotyping
- Male
- Metaphase
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred Strains
- Mice, Transgenic/genetics
- Mice, Transgenic/metabolism
- Organ Specificity/genetics
- Stem Cells/cytology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- T Shinohara
- Department of Molecular and Cell Genetics, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Tottori University and CREST (JST), Yonago, Japan
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25
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Voet T, Vermeesch J, Carens A, Dürr J, Labaere C, Duhamel H, David G, Marynen P. Efficient male and female germline transmission of a human chromosomal vector in mice. Genome Res 2001; 11:124-36. [PMID: 11156621 PMCID: PMC311020 DOI: 10.1101/gr.159901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A small accessory chromosome that was mitotically stable in human fibroblasts was transferred into the hprt(-) hamster cell line CH and developed as a human chromosomal vector (HCV) by the introduction of a selectable marker and the 3' end of an HPRT minigene preceded by a loxP sequence. This HCV is stably maintained in the hamster cell line. It consists mainly of alphoid sequences of human chromosome 20 and a fragment of human chromosome region 1p22, containing the tissue factor gene F3. The vector has an active centromere, and telomere sequences are lacking. By transfecting a plasmid containing the 5' end of HPRT and a Cre-encoding plasmid into the HCV(+) hamster cell line, the HPRT minigene was reconstituted by Cre-mediated recombination and expressed by the cells. The HCV was then transferred to male mouse R1-ES cells and it did segregate properly. Chimeras were generated containing the HCV as an independent chromosome in a proportion of the cells. Part of the male and female offspring of the chimeras did contain the HCV. The HCV(+) F1 animals harbored the extra chromosome in >80% of the cells. The HCV was present as an independent chromosome with an active centromere and the human F3 gene was expressed from the HCV in a human-tissue-specific manner. Both male and female F1 mice did transmit the HCV to F2 offspring as an independent chromosome with properties similar to the original vector. This modified small accessory chromosome, thus, shows the properties of a useful chromosomal vector: It segregates stably as an independent chromosome, sequences can be inserted in a controlled way and are expressed from the vector, and the HCV is transmitted through the male and female germline in mice.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cell Adhesion Molecules, Neuronal/biosynthesis
- Cell Adhesion Molecules, Neuronal/genetics
- Cell Line
- Chimera/genetics
- Chromosomes, Artificial/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human/genetics
- Chromosomes, Human/virology
- Contactins
- Cricetinae
- Crosses, Genetic
- Embryo, Mammalian
- Female
- Fibroblasts
- Gene Transfer Techniques
- Genetic Vectors/biosynthesis
- Genetic Vectors/genetics
- Humans
- Hypoxanthine Phosphoribosyltransferase/genetics
- Integrases/genetics
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Mitosis/genetics
- Mutagenesis, Insertional
- Recombination, Genetic
- Simian virus 40/genetics
- Stem Cells/physiology
- Viral Proteins
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Affiliation(s)
- T Voet
- Human Genome Laboratory, Leuven, Belgium
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26
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Abstract
One of the biggest obstacles to gene therapy is the delivery of the therapeutic gene to the target tissue so that it is appropriately expressed. In his Perspective, Willard looks at the potential advantages of using a human artificial chromosome to maintain expression of a therapeutic gene and discusses some of the hurdles yet to be overcome before this gene delivery system can be tried out in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Willard
- Department of Genetics and Center for Human Genetics at Case Western Reserve University and the Research Institute of Universi Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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27
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Perez C, de Jong G, Drayer J. Satellite DNA-based artificial chromosomes--chromosomal vectors. Trends Biotechnol 2000; 18:402-3. [PMID: 11183125 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-7799(00)01487-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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28
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Kuroiwa Y, Tomizuka K, Shinohara T, Kazuki Y, Yoshida H, Ohguma A, Yamamoto T, Tanaka S, Oshimura M, Ishida I. Manipulation of human minichromosomes to carry greater than megabase-sized chromosome inserts. Nat Biotechnol 2000; 18:1086-90. [PMID: 11017048 DOI: 10.1038/80287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For introducing regions of human chromosomes greater than a megabase into cells or animals, we have developed a chromosome-cloning system in which defined regions of human chromosomes can be cloned into a stable human minichromosome vector in homologous recombination-proficient chicken DT40 cells. The stable minichromosome vector allowed a 10 Mb-sized region of the mitotically unstable human chromosome 22 to be stably maintained in mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells, and in mice. Furthermore, we demonstrated functional expression of human genes from the HAC in mice. This study describes a stable cloning and expression system for greater than megabase-sized regions of human chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kuroiwa
- Pharmaceutical Research Laboratory, Kirin Brewery. Co., Ltd., 3 Miyahara-cho Takasaki-shi Gunma 370-1295, Japan
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29
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Tomizuka K, Shinohara T, Yoshida H, Uejima H, Ohguma A, Tanaka S, Sato K, Oshimura M, Ishida I. Double trans-chromosomic mice: maintenance of two individual human chromosome fragments containing Ig heavy and kappa loci and expression of fully human antibodies. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000; 97:722-7. [PMID: 10639146 PMCID: PMC15397 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.97.2.722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of a human chromosome or its fragment as a vector for animal transgenesis may facilitate functional studies of large human genomic regions. We describe here the generation and analysis of double trans-chromosomic (Tc) mice harboring two individual human chromosome fragments (hCFs). Two transmittable hCFs, one containing the Ig heavy chain locus (IgH, approximately 1.5 Mb) and the other the kappa light chain locus (Igkappa, approximately 2 Mb), were introduced into a mouse strain whose endogenous IgH and Igkappa loci were inactivated. In the resultant double-Tc/double-knockout mice, substantial proportion of the somatic cells retained both hCFs, and the rescue in the defect of Ig production was shown by high level expression of human Ig heavy and kappa chains in the absence of mouse heavy and kappa chains. In addition, serum expression profiles of four human Ig gamma subclasses resembled those seen in humans. They mounted an antigen-specific human antibody response upon immunization with human serum albumin, and human serum albumin-specific human monoclonal antibodies with various isotypes were obtained from them. These results represent a generation of mice with "humanized" loci by using the transmittable hCFs, which suggest that the Tc technology may allow for the humanization of over megabase-sized, complex loci in mice or other animals. Such animals may be useful not only for studying in vivo functions of the human genome but also for obtaining various therapeutic products.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Tomizuka
- Pharmaceutical Research Laboratory, Kirin Brewery Co., Ltd., Miyahara-cho 3, Takasaki-shi, Gunma 370-1295, Japan
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30
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Shen MH, Mee PJ, Nichols J, Yang J, Brook F, Gardner RL, Smith AG, Brown WR. A structurally defined mini-chromosome vector for the mouse germ line. Curr Biol 2000; 10:31-4. [PMID: 10660300 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-9822(99)00261-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Yeast artificial mini-chromosomes have helped to define the features of chromosome architecture important for accurate segregation and replication and have been used to identify genes important for chromosome stability and as large-fragment cloning vectors. Artificial chromosomes have been developed in human cells but they do not have defined, experimentally predictable structures. Fragments of human chromosomes have also been introduced into mice and in one case passed through the germ line. In these experiments, however, the structure and sequence organization of the fragments was not defined. Structurally defined mammalian mini-chromosome vectors should allow large tracts of DNA to be introduced into the vertebrate germ line for biotechnological purposes and for investigations of features of chromosome structure that influence gene expression. Here, we have determined the structure and sequence organization of an engineered mammalian mini-chromosome, ST1, and shown that it is stably maintained in vertebrate somatic cells and that it can be transmitted through the mouse germ line.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Shen
- CRC Chromosome Molecular Biology Group, Biochemistry Department, Oxford, UK
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31
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Mann KL, Huxley C. Investigation of Schizosaccharomyces pombe as a cloning host for human telomere and alphoid DNA. Gene 2000; 241:275-85. [PMID: 10675040 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1119(99)00482-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Sch. pombe) has been proposed as a possible cloning host for both mammalian artificial chromosomes (MACs) and mammalian genomic libraries, due to the large size of its chromosomes and its similarity to higher eukaryotic cells. Here, it was investigated for its ability to form telomeres from human telomere sequence and to stably maintain long stretches of alphoid DNA. Using linear constructs terminating in the telomere repeat, T2AG3, human telomere DNA was shown to efficiently seed telomere formation in Sch. pombe. Much of the human telomeric sequence was removed on addition of Sch. pombe telomeric sequence, a process similar to that described in S. cerevisiae. To investigate the stability of alphoid DNA in fission yeast, bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) containing 130 and 173 kb of alphoid DNA were retrofitted with the Sch. pombe ars1 element and ura4+ marker using Cre-lox recombination. These alphoid BACs were found to be highly unstable in Sch. pombe deleting down to less than 40 kb, whilst control BACs of 96 and 202 kb, containing non-repetitive DNA, were unrearranged. Alphoid DNA has been shown to be sufficient for human centromere function, and this marked instability excludes Sch. pombe as a useful cloning host for mammalian artificial chromosomes. In addition, regions containing repetitive DNA from mammalian genomes may not be truly represented in libraries constructed in Sch. pombe.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Mann
- Section of Molecular Genetics, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Imperial College School of Medicine, London, UK
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32
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Burns EM, Christopoulou L, Corish P, Tyler-Smith C. Quantitative measurement of mammalian chromosome mitotic loss rates using the green fluorescent protein. J Cell Sci 1999; 112 ( Pt 16):2705-14. [PMID: 10413678 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.112.16.2705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We have measured the mitotic loss rates of mammalian chromosomes in cultured cells. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene was incorporated into a non-essential chromosome so that cells containing the chromosome fluoresced green, while those lacking it did not. The proportions of fluorescent and non-fluorescent cells were measured by fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis. Loss rates ranged from 0.005% to 0.20% per cell division in mouse LA-9 cells, and from 0.02% to 0.40% in human HeLa cells. The rate of loss was elevated by treatment with aneugens, demonstrating that the system rapidly identifies agents which induce chromosome loss in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Burns
- CRC Chromosome Molecular Biology Group, Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QU, UK
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33
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Guiducci C, Ascenzioni F, Auriche C, Piccolella E, Guerrini AM, Donini P. Use of a human minichromosome as a cloning and expression vector for mammalian cells. Hum Mol Genet 1999; 8:1417-24. [PMID: 10400988 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/8.8.1417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A natural human minichromosome (MC1) derived from human chromosome 1 was shown to be linear and to have a size of 5.5 Mb. Human IL-2 cDNA and the neo gene were co-transfected into a MC1-containing human-CHO hybrid cell line. Integration of the foreign genes was directed to the pericentromeric region of MC1 by co-transfection of chromosome 1-specific satellite 2 DNA. A number of G418-resistant transfectants were obtained and expression of IL-2 was determined. FISH analysis demonstrated co-localization in the minichromosome of the IL-2 gene and of the satellite 2 DNA. An IL-2-producing clone was used in cell fusion experiments with IL-2-dependent murine CTLL cells to generate CTLL-human hybrids containing the modified minichromosome (MC1- IL2 ). The hybrids were able to grow in medium lacking IL-2 for 17 mean population doublings (MPD), indicating that expression of the cytokine was sufficient to relieve the IL-2 dependence of CTLL proliferation. Endogenous IL-2 production delayed the onset of apoptosis in the IL-2-dependent CTLL cells. Mitotic stability was shown to be 100% in the human-CHO hybrids and 97% per MPD in CTLL cells. These results demonstrate that a natural human minichromosome can be utilized as a cloning and expression vector for mammalian cells and that the MC1 minichromosome can be engineered to deliver IL-2 to two types of cells, fibroblasts and lymphocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Guiducci
- Istituto Pasteur-Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, c/o Dipartimento di Biologia Cellulare e dello Sviluppo, Università 'La Sapienza', Via degli Apuli 1, 00185 Roma, Italy
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Abstract
Autosomal trisomy causes a large proportion of all human pregnancy loss and so is a significant source of lethality in the human population. The autosomal trisomy syndromes each have a different phenotype and are probably caused by the effects of specific genes that are present in three copies, rather than the normal two. Identifying these genes will require the application of classical genetic and new genome-manipulation approaches. Recent advances in chromosome engineering are now allowing us to create precisely defined autosomal trisomies in the mouse, and so provide new routes to identifying the critical, dosage-sensitive genes that are responsible for these highly deleterious, yet very common, syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Hernandez
- Department of Neurogenetics, Imperial College School of Medicine (St Mary's), Norfolk Place, London, UK W2 1PG.
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Hernandez D, Mee PJ, Martin JE, Tybulewicz VL, Fisher EM. Transchromosomal mouse embryonic stem cell lines and chimeric mice that contain freely segregating segments of human chromosome 21. Hum Mol Genet 1999; 8:923-33. [PMID: 10196383 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/8.5.923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
At least 8% of all human conceptions have major chromosome abnormalities and the frequency of chromosomal syndromes in newborns is >0.5%. Despite these disorders making a large contribution to human morbidity and mortality, we have little understanding of their aetiology and little molecular data on the importance of gene dosage to mammalian cells. Trisomy 21, which results in Down syndrome (DS), is the most frequent aneuploidy in humans (1 in 600 live births, up to 1 in 150 pregnancies world-wide) and is the most common known genetic cause of mental retardation. To investigate the molecular genetics of DS, we report here the creation of mice that carry different human chromosome 21 (Hsa21) fragments as a freely segregating extra chromosome. To produce these 'transchromosomal' animals, we placed a selectable marker into Hsa21 and transferred the chromosome from a human somatic cell line into mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells using irradiation microcell-mediated chromosome transfer (XMMCT). 'Transchromosomal' ES cells containing different Hsa21 regions ranging in size from approximately 50 to approximately 0.2 Mb have been used to create chimeric mice. These mice maintain Hsa21 sequences and express Hsa21 genes in multiple tissues. This novel use of the XMMCT protocol is applicable to investigations requiring the transfer of large chromosomal regions into ES or other cells and, in particular, the modelling of DS and other human aneuploidy syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Hernandez
- Department of Neurogenetics, Imperial College School of Medicine, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK
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Mills W, Critcher R, Lee C, Farr CJ. Generation of an approximately 2.4 Mb human X centromere-based minichromosome by targeted telomere-associated chromosome fragmentation in DT40. Hum Mol Genet 1999; 8:751-61. [PMID: 10196364 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/8.5.751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
A linear mammalian artificial chromosome (MAC) will require at least three types of functional element: a centromere, two telomeres and origins of replication. As yet, our understanding of these elements, as well as many other aspects of structure and organization which may be critical for a fully functional mammalian chromosome, remains poor. As a way of defining these various requirements, minichromosome reagents are being developed and analysed. Approaches for minichromosome generation fall into two broad categories: de novo assembly from candidate DNA sequences, or the fragmentation of an existing chromosome to reduce it to a minimal size. Here we describe the generation of a human minichromosome using the latter, top-down, approach. A human X chromosome, present in a DT40-human microcell hybrid, has been manipulated using homologous recombination and the targeted seeding of a de novo telomere. This strategy has generated a linear approximately 2.4 Mb human X centromere-based minichromosome capped by two artificially seeded telomeres: one immediately flanking the centromeric alpha-satellite DNA and the other targeted to the zinc finger gene ZXDA in Xp11.21. The chromosome retains an alpha-satellite domain of approximately 1. 8 Mb, a small array of gamma-satellite repeat ( approximately 40 kb) and approximately 400 kb of Xp proximal DNA sequence. The mitotic stability of this minichromosome has been examined, both in DT40 and following transfer into hamster and human cell lines. In all three backgrounds, the minichromosome is retained efficiently, but in the human and hamster microcell hybrids its copy number is poorly regulated. This approach of engineering well-defined chromosome reagents will allow key questions in MAC development (such as whether a lower size limit exists) to be addressed. In addition, the 2.4 Mb minichromosome described here has potential to be developed as a vector for gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Mills
- Department of Genetics, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EH, UK
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37
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Abstract
Two reports have shown that mammalian artificial chromosomes (MAC) can be constructed from cloned human centromere DNA and telomere repeats, proving the principle that chromosomes can form from naked DNA molecules transfected into human cells. The MACs were mitotically stable, low copy number and bound antibodies associated with active centromeres. As a step toward second-generation MACs, yeast and bacterial cloning systems will have to be adapted to achieve large MAC constructs having a centromere, two telomeres, and genomic copies of mammalian genes. Available construction techniques are discussed along with a new P1 artificial chromosome (PAC)-derived telomere vector (pTAT) that can be joined to other PACs in vitro, avoiding a cloning step during which large repetitive arrays often rearrange. The PAC system can be used as a route to further define the optimal DNA elements required for efficient MAC formation, to investigate the expression of genes on MACs, and possibly to develop efficient MAC-delivery protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Schindelhauer
- Department of Medical Genetics, Kinderpoliklinik, Ludwig Maximilians-Universitaet, Muenchen, Germany.
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Abstract
Mammalian artificial chromosomes (MACs) represent powerful tools for human gene therapy and animal transgenesis. First-generation linear genomic human artificial chromosomes (HACs) and circular chimeric genomic/viral mouse artificial episomal chromosomes (MAECs) have been developed. HACs have been shuttled from human into mouse embryonal stem cells and human trans-chromosomic mice have been generated. The potential of new genetic cis-elements and epigenetic phenomena for de novo segregation and replication activities on MACs are points for discussion. Once the size and delivery constraints of HACs are circumvented, therapeutic applications will be numerous, particularly for recessive syndromes involving large genes and multigenic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Vos
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill 27599-7295, USA.
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40
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Abstract
Successful construction of artificial chromosomes is an important step for studies to elucidate the DNA elements necessary for chromosome structure and function. A roadblock to developing a tractable system in multicellular organisms, including humans, is the poorly understood nature of centromeres. Progress, has been made in defining the satellite DNA that appears to contribute to the centromere in both humans and Drosophila and large arrays of alpha satellite DNA have been used to construct first-generation human artificial chromosomes. Non-satellite DNA sequences are also capable of forming 'neo-centromeres' under some circumstances, however, raising questions about the sequence-dependence of centromere and kinetochore assembly. Taken together with new information on the nature of protein components of the kinetochore, these data support a model in which functional kinetochores are assembled on centromeric chromatin, the competence of which is established epigenetically. The development of human artificial chromosome systems should facilitate investigation of the DNA and chromatin requirements for active centromere assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- H F Willard
- Department of Genetics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.
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Abstract
New developments in mouse genetics have transformed the field of genetics from a reactive to a proactive science. Current technologies in transgenesis, chromosome engineering, and saturation mutagenesis are introduced. These approaches permit the creation of new mutations and consequent mutant phenotypes that facilitate both the understanding of functions of existing genes and the search for previously unidentified genes affecting important phenotypes in all mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Reeves
- Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in Baltimore, MD, USA.
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