Sampling Considerations for Adult and Immature Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae)

Evidence of Active Orbivirus Transmission in 2016 in Kansas and Nebraska

Retrospective serological and case diagnostic data of endemic bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) provide evidence of viral transmission among livestock and wildlife from 2016 in Kansas and Nebraska. Serological testing of mature cattle in nine distinct regional zones of Kansas revealed 76% to 100% had detectable antibodies to BTV and/or EHDV. Specimens tested in the Kansas Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (55 submissions) were 51% test positive for antibodies to BTV and/or EHDV. Specimens tested in the Nebraska Veterinary Diagnostic Center (283 submissions) were 25% test positive for antibodies to BTV and/or EHDV. Low disease incidence in white-tailed deer and other susceptible wild ungulates was observed during 2016. However, there were no confirmed reports of disease in livestock in either state. The reasons for emergence of significant clinical disease in livestock and wildlife populations remain undefined.

Outlook on RNAi-Based Strategies for Controlling Culicoides Biting Midges

Culicoides are small biting midges with the capacity to transmit important livestock pathogens around much of the world, and their impacts on animal welfare are likely to expand. Hemorrhagic diseases resulting from Culicoides-vectored viruses, for example, can lead to millions of dollars in economic damages for producers. Chemical insecticides can reduce Culicoides abundance but may not suppress population numbers enough to prevent pathogen transmission. These insecticides can also cause negative effects on non-target organisms and ecosystems. RNA interference (RNAi) is a cellular regulatory mechanism that degrades mRNA and suppresses gene expression. Studies have examined the utility of this mechanism for insect pest control, and with it, have described the hurdles towards producing, optimizing, and applying these RNAi-based products. These methods hold promise for being highly specific and environmentally benign when compared to chemical insecticides and are more transient than engineering transgenic insects. Given the lack of available control options for Culicoides, RNAi-based products could be an option to treat large areas with minimal environmental impact. In this study, we describe the state of current Culicoides control methods, successes and hurdles towards using RNAi for pest control, and the necessary research required to bring an RNAi-based control method to fruition for Culicoides midges.

Abundance and diversity of Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in southern Ontario, Canada

BACKGROUND

Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) is a genus of hematophagous midges feeding on various vertebrate hosts and serving as a vector for numerous pathogens important to livestock and wildlife health. North American pathogens include bluetongue (BT) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) viruses. Little is known about Culicoides spp. distribution and abundance and species composition in Ontario, Canada, despite bordering numerous U.S. states with documented Culicoides spp. and BT and EHD virus activity. We sought to characterize Culicoides spp. distribution and abundance and to investigate whether select meteorological and ecological risk factors influenced the abundance of Culicoides biguttatus, C. stellifer, and the subgenus Avaritia trapped throughout southern Ontario.

METHODS

From June to October of 2017 to 2018, CDC-type LED light suction traps were placed on twelve livestock-associated sites across southern Ontario. Culicoides spp. collected were morphologically identified to the species level when possible. Associations were examined using negative binomial regression among C. biguttatus, C. stellifer, and subgenus Avaritia abundance, and select factors: ambient temperature, rainfall, primary livestock species, latitude, and habitat type.

RESULTS

In total, 33,905 Culicoides spp. midges were collected, encompassing 14 species from seven subgenera and one species group. Culicoides sonorensis was collected from three sites during both years. Within Ontario, the northern trapping locations had a pattern of seasonal peak abundance in August (2017) and July (2018), and the southern locations had abundance peaks in June for both years. Culicoides biguttatus, C. stellifer, and subgenus Avaritia were significantly more abundant if ovine was the primary livestock species at trapping sites (compared to bovine). Culicoides stellifer and subgenus Avaritia were significantly more abundant at mid- to high-temperature ranges on trap days (i.e., 17.3-20.2 and 20.3-31.0 °C compared to 9.5-17.2 °C). Additionally, subgenus Avaritia were significantly more abundant if rainfall 4 weeks prior was between 2.7 and 20.1 mm compared to 0.0 mm and if rainfall 8 weeks prior was between 0.1 and 2.1 mm compared to 0.0 mm.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from our study describe Culicoides spp. distribution in southern Ontario, the potential for spread and maintenance of EHD and BT viruses, and concurrent health risks to livestock and wildlife in southern Ontario in reference to certain meteorological and ecological risk factors. We identified that Culicoides spp. are diverse in this province, and appear to be distinctly distributed spatially and temporally. The livestock species present, temperature, and rainfall appear to have an impact on the abundance of C. biguttatus, C. stellifer, and subgenus Avaritia trapped. These findings could help inform targeted surveillance, control measures, and the development of management guides for Culicoides spp. and EHD and BT viruses in southern Ontario, Canada.

Comparison of Trap Efficiency Using Suction Traps Baited With Either UV or CO2 for the Capture of Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Species in the Southern California Desert, United States

Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) biting midges are hematophagous flies that can transmit several disease-causing pathogens to animals. Surveillance of Culicoides is important for understanding pathogen transmission risk. The most commonly used traps for midge surveillance are suction traps baited with UV light or CO2. Culicoides species are understudied in the southern California desert region and trapping methods for these desert midges remain largely unexplored. In this study, capture rates of different Culicoides species were compared using suction traps baited with either UV or CO2 placed at two locations at a southern California desert site where a narrow canyon (Deep Canyon) drains the adjacent peninsular mountain range and leads to an expansive floodplain. Over all trap nights and locations, UV-baited traps outperformed CO2-baited traps for most Culicoides species captured at the study site, except for Culicoides sonorensis Wirth and Jones and C. mohave Wirth. Capture rates varied for each species by trap location, with desert Culicoides species captured in greater numbers at the canyon mouth while C. sonorensis and C. mohave were captured in greater numbers on the floodplain nearer to urban development including a golf course and small zoo. An interaction of trap type with trapping location on the capture rate was noted for some Culicoides species, especially for C. mohave which was captured in greater numbers using UV traps at the canyon mouth but captured in greater numbers using CO2 traps in the floodplain. This trap efficiency study will facilitate future research targeting Culicoides species in the southern California desert.

Relationship Between Weather and Changes in Annual and Seasonal Abundance of Culicoides sonorensis (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Alberta

Factors influencing annual and seasonal abundance of Culicoides sonorensis (Wirth and Jones) (Diptera; Ceratopogonidae) were examined at 10 sites in southern Alberta using negative binomial regression. Annual abundance varied among locations with greatest abundance in a narrow geographic band between -112.17 and -112.64°W longitude and 49.32 and 50.17°N latitude. Sites were grouped depending on whether abundance was continuous and high; discontinuous and low; or sporadic and low without much loss of information. Maximum annual abundance declined with spring precipitation, increased with spring temperature, and was unrelated to spring relative humidity, suggesting that abundance is highest during years with early drought conditions. Seasonal abundance was associated with the same factors but was further influenced by temperature and relative humidity during the sample intervals. Lagged effects were apparent, suggesting abundance increased with warmer temperatures over a six-week period, and increased when relative humidity declined closer to the sampling period. Predicted values were slightly biased and tended to overestimate observed data, but this could be adjusted using calibration curves. The model can also be used to predict presence/absence of C. sonorensis and will be useful for developing risk assessments.

Comparison of surveillance trapping methods to monitor Culicoides biting midge activity in Trinidad, West Indies

Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) are biting nuisances and arbovirus vectors of both public health and veterinary significance in Trinidad. We compared sampling methods to define the behaviour and bionomics of adult Culicoides populations at a commercial dairy goat farm. Three static trap designs were compared: (a) Centre for Disease Control (CDC) downdraft UV trap; (b) CDC trap with an incandescent bulb and (c) CDC trap with semiochemical lure consisting of R-(-)-1-octen-3-ol and CO₂ (no bulb). Sweep netting was used to define diel periodicity. A total of 30,701 biting midges were collected using static traps, dominated by female Culicoides furens (>70% of trap collections across all three designs). There was no significant difference in the Margalef's index between the three traps; however, trap designs A and C collected a significantly greater number of individuals than trap B, and trap C gained highest species richness. The greatest species richness and abundance of Culicoides collected by sweep net was observed between 6:00 and 6:15 pm and notable differences in the crepuscular activity pattern of several species were identified. Comparative data on Culicoides species richness, abundance, sex and reproductive status is discussed and can be used to improve surveillance strategies, research designs and risk management.

Preliminary Study on Comparative Efficacy of Four Light Sources for Trapping Culicoides spp. (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, Thailand

The light trap is an important tool to determine the presence and abundance of vectors in the field. However, no one has studied the efficiency of light traps for collecting Culicoides in Thailand. In the present study, the efficacy of four light sources was evaluated in Prachuap Khiri Khan province, Thailand. Incandescent (INCND) light, white fluorescent (WHT-FLR) light, ultraviolet fluorescent (UV-FLR) light, and UV light-emitting diode (UV-LED) light were tested using commercial traps. In total, 30,866 individuals of Culicoides species were collected from November 2020 to June 2021, of which 21,016 were trapped on site 1 and 6,731 were trapped on site 2. The two most abundant Culicoides species were C. imicola (54%) and C. oxystoma (31.2%). UV-FLR was highly effective, followed by UV-LED light, WHT-FLR light, and INCND light, respectively, for Culicoides collection. Significantly, more Culicoides species were collected in those traps baited with UV-FLR light, UV-LED light, or WHT-FLR light than for INCND light traps. Traps equipped with UV-FLR lights can be recommended to trap Culcoides biting midges for monitoring purposes.

Assigning Culicoides larvae to species using DNA barcoding of adult females and phylogenetic associations

Background

Orbivirus-induced hemorrhagic diseases cause high mortality in wild and captive white-tailed deer in North America. The role of different Culicoides species in Orbivirus transmission outside of areas of intensive animal production has not been established. At our study location, bluetongue virus (BTV) RNA-positive female Culicoides debilipalpis pools have been detected annually since 2012 when BTV transmission was noted in a captive deer herd. Identifying specific larval habitats of suspected vectors at active transmission sites is crucial both for identifying the source of the vectors and for subsequently planning intervention actions. Since C. debilipalpis larvae are known to develop in tree holes, this study was designed to use DNA barcoding to identify larvae collected from tree holes.

Methods

Adult female Culicoides were collected using light or emergence traps and morphologically identified to 11 species. Culicoides sonorensis were also obtained from a laboratory colony. Substrate was collected from tree holes and flooded with water to harvest floating larvae. Total DNA from three to seven adult females per species and 19 larvae was extracted. Two loci of the nuclear 18S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene, one locus each of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and the nuclear 28S rRNA gene were amplified using loci-specific primers.

Results

All 61 adults were sequenced at each of the four loci under study. Since no single locus delineated all putative species and the COI locus yielded unreliable pseudogenes for two individuals of C. arboricola, sequences of all four loci were concatenated to maximize species separation and allow for larval association with identified adults. Sixteen larvae were clearly assigned to species based on DNA barcoding and phylogenetic results. Multiple larvae were assigned to each of the C. debilipalpis clade, the C. villosipennis clade, the C. arboricola clade and the C. nanus clade.

Conclusions

Of the approximately 62 species described in the southeast USA, 21 have now been barcoded and sequences are publicly available. In this study, we constructed a database composed of species-specific sequences of adult Culicoides and then identified larvae to species by matching their corresponding sequences with adults. Since Culicoides larvae are difficult to identify, using DNA barcoding to facilitate larval habitat surveys can be a valuable tool.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05479-1.

Field Comparison of Removed Substrate Sampling and Emergence Traps for Estimating Culicoides Orbivirus Vectors in Northern Florida

The larval ecology of Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) influences their spatial distributions and the pathogens they transmit. These features are of special concern for deer farmers in Florida where epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) is a major source of mortality in captive herds. Rarity of larval morphological expertise leads many researchers to study larval ecology by quantifying emergence, either with field emergence traps or removing substrate from the field for observation under laboratory conditions. We investigated the comparability of these methods in Florida seepages where two recently implicated EHDV vectors, Culicoides stellifer Coquillett and Culicoides venustus Hoffman, are common. We compared the abundance and composition of emerging Culicoides collected from emergence traps with removed substrate samples (soil plugs) at three seepages. Soil plugs were sampled adjacent to the emergence trap and from underneath the trap footprint, and then monitored under laboratory conditions for 11-13 wk to compare the methods and to assess the role of incubation period for removed substrate samples. Emergence traps and removed substrate sampling largely agreed on community compositions and trends within different seepages. However, comparatively large numbers of C. stellifer emerged later than expected and well into the incubation period with emergence still occurring after 13 wk (90 d). Removed substrate samples were more similar to emergence traps at shorter incubation times. The importance of time for the capture of Culicoides in removed substrate sampling was more pronounced than we anticipated and is important from both a methodological and biological perspective.

Composition and diversity of Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in rural and suburban environments of Algeria

Culicoides biting midges are well known biological vectors of several arboviruses causing more than 100 veterinary and medical diseases worldwide. In Algeria, bluetongue virus, which is transmitted by Culicoides midges, is responsible for one of the most critical insect-borne diseases of sheep. For example, this disease caused clinically severe morbidity of about 2,661 confirmed cases out of 21,175 susceptible sheep in Algeria. This study compared the abundance, richness, and diversity of Culicoides species in rural and suburban environments of semi-arid regions in North Africa. It examined the potential influence of the bio-climatic factors on the variation of population sizes and the elevation distribution of biting midges. Specimen collection was carried out from June to September during two successive years (2018 and 2019) using CDC light traps installed at 15 sites in different environments. Culicoides specimens were dissected, slide-mounted, and morphologically identified using the interactive identification key IIKC and various standard morphological criteria. A total of 1,046 Culicoides specimens (1,024 females and 22 males) were trapped and classified into 22 species, belonged to nine distinct subgenera. Two new species records for Algeria and even North Africa are reported: Culicoides albicans (Winnertz, 1852) and Culicoides nubeculosus (Meigen, 1830). Culicoides newsteadi Austen, 1921 (51.6%) was the dominant species, and it was followed by Culicoides punctatus (Meigen, 1804) (16.3%) and Culicoides odiatus Austen, 1921 (11.5%). These three species, comprising 80% of the collected Culicoides, were the most abundant both outside and inside livestock stables in rural and suburban environments. Species diversity was similar in the two settings, with a slight increase in suburban environments. None of the Culicoides species encountered correlated significantly with the climatic factors (mean temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity). Elevation was the most determinant environmental parameter that affected the abundance and distribution of Culicoides midges in the semi-arid and sub-humid areas studied. The maximum distribution of Culicoides species was detected at mid elevations (400‒800 m). Using a modeling approach, we explored for the first time the variation of composition and diversity in Culicoides communities within different climatic regions, environments and livestock settings in Algeria. This survey deepens our understanding of the relationships among environmental factors, abundance, diversity, and geographic distribution of Culicoides. This is a crucial step to assess the epidemiological situation of the diseases transmitted by these biting midges and to allow mitigation of the associated risks.

Culicoides species community composition and feeding preferences in two aquatic ecosystems in northern Spain

Background

Aquatic ecosystems provide breeding sites for blood-sucking insects such as Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), but factors affecting their distribution and host choice are poorly understood. A study was undertaken at two nature reserves in northern Spain to examine the abundance, species composition, population dynamics and feeding patterns of biting midges between 2018 and 2019.

Methods

Culicoides were captured by light suction traps baited with CO₂ and by sweep netting vegetation. Blood meals and species identification of blood-fed specimens were determined using cytochrome c oxidase I subunit (COI) DNA barcoding. Multivariate generalized linear models were used to evaluate the associations between the abundance of Culicoides, the species richness and other parameters.

Results

The 4973 identified specimens comprised 28 species of Culicoides. These included two species reported for the first time in northern Spain, thus raising to 54 the number of Culicoides species described in the region. Specimens of all 28 species and 99.6% of the total specimens collected were caught in suction traps, while sweep netting vegetation revealed just 11 species and 0.4% of the total specimens. Midge abundance peaked in June/early July, with five species comprising > 80% of the captures: Culicoides alazanicus (24.9%), Culicoides griseidorsum (20.3%), Culicoides poperinghensis (16.2%), Culicoides kibunensis (10.7%) and Culicoides clastrieri (9.6%). DNA barcode analysis of blood meals from eight Culicoides species revealed that they fed on 17 vertebrate species (3 mammals and 14 birds). Species in the subgenus Avaritia were primarily ornithophilic, except for C. griseidorsum and C. poperinghensis. Host DNA from blood meals was successfully amplified from 75% of blood-fed females. A pictorial blood meal digestion scale is provided to accurately assess the blood-fed status of female Culicoides.

Conclusions

The large number of different blood meal sources identified in the midges captured in this study signals the likely importance of wild birds and mammals (e.g. red deer and wild boar) as reservoir/amplifying hosts for pathogens. Available hosts are more exposed to being bitten by biting midge populations in aquatic ecosystems in late spring and early summer.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05297-5.

Comparison of the efficiency of the Onderstepoort- and Centres for Disease Control ultraviolet light traps for the collection of livestock associated Culicoides species in South Africa

Comparative monitoring of the abundance and distribution of Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), the biological vectors of the causative agents of several diseases of global veterinary importance, will be crucial in determining the risk of disease outbreak and spread. Ultraviolet (UV) suction traps have become the most frequent method used for the monitoring of Culicoides diversity and abundance. The current study compared the trapping efficiency of the two most used UV suction light traps, i.e., the Onderstepoort (OP)- and the Centres for Disease Control trap, for the collection of livestock associated Culicoides species in South Africa. The study confirmed the superiority of the OP trap and indicated a correlation in species composition and age grading results as determine with the two trap types. Substantial variations in the comparative trap efficiency, as found between areas and sites within an area, suggest that a universal conversion factor between the two trap types may not be advisable as it is unclear to what extent species composition and environmental factors may influence the conversion factor. Light traps, independent of trap model, can be considered acceptable for determining the serial comparison of population numbers for seasonal fluctuation and species abundance in distribution surveys.