1
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Tiffin HS, Brown JD, Ternent M, Snavely B, Carrollo E, Kibe E, Buderman FE, Mullinax JM, Machtinger ET. Resolution of Clinical Signs of Sarcoptic Mange in American Black Bears (Ursus americanus), in Ivermectin-Treated and Nontreated Individuals. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:434-447. [PMID: 38305090 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
The parasitic mite Sarcoptes scabiei causes mange in nearly 150 species of mammals by burrowing under the skin, triggering hypersensitivity responses that can alter animals' behavior and result in extreme weight loss, secondary infections, and even death. Since the 1990s, sarcoptic mange has increased in incidence and geographic distribution in Pennsylvania black bear (Ursus americanus) populations, including expansion into other states. Recovery from mange in free-ranging wildlife has rarely been evaluated. Following the Pennsylvania Game Commission's standard operating procedures at the time of the study, treatment consisted of one subcutaneous injection of ivermectin. To evaluate black bear survival and recovery from mange, from 2018 to 2020 we fitted 61 bears, including 43 with mange, with GPS collars to track their movements and recovery. Bears were collared in triplicates according to sex and habitat, consisting of one bear without mange (healthy control), one scabietic bear treated with ivermectin when collared, and one untreated scabietic bear. Bears were reevaluated for signs of mange during annual den visits, if recaptured during the study period, and after mortality events. Disease status and recovery from mange was determined based on outward gross appearance and presence of S. scabiei mites from skin scrapes. Of the 36 scabietic bears with known recovery status, 81% fully recovered regardless of treatment, with 88% recovered with treatment and 74% recovered without treatment. All bears with no, low, or moderate mite burdens (<16 mites on skin scrapes) fully recovered from mange (n=20), and nearly half of bears with severe mite burden (≥16 mites) fully recovered (n=5, 42%). However, nonrecovered status did not indicate mortality, and mange-related mortality was infrequent. Most bears were able to recover from mange irrespective of treatment, potentially indicating a need for reevaluation of the mange wildlife management paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah S Tiffin
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Justin D Brown
- Department of Veterinary & Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, 108D AVBS Building, Shortlidge Rd., University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Mark Ternent
- Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Ave., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110, USA
| | - Brandon Snavely
- Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Ave., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110, USA
| | - Emily Carrollo
- Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Ave., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110, USA
| | - Ethan Kibe
- Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2001 Elmerton Ave., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17110, USA
| | - Frances E Buderman
- Department of Ecosystem Science & Management, Pennsylvania State University, 401 Forest Resources Building, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Jennifer M Mullinax
- Department of Environmental Science & Technology, University of Maryland, 1433 Animal Science Building, 8127 Regents Dr., College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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2
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Machtinger ET, Poh KC, Pesapane R, Tufts DM. An integrative framework for tick management: the need to connect wildlife science, One Health, and interdisciplinary perspectives. Curr Opin Insect Sci 2024; 61:101131. [PMID: 37866434 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2023.101131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases pose a significant threat to human and animal health worldwide. Their emergence is influenced by various factors such as environmental changes, host characteristics, and human behavior. The One Health approach is necessary to thoroughly investigate tick-borne diseases and understand the complex interactions between environmental, animal, and human health. Anthropogenic changes have impacted predators, leading to cascading effects on wildlife prey species and the emergence of vector-borne diseases. The increase in global trade and travel has led to the introduction of several invasive vector species, increasing the risk of zoonotic pathogen spillover. Tick and tick-borne disease research requires an interdisciplinary approach to address challenges in a One Health paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- The Pennsylvania State University, Department of Entomology, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, PA 16802, USA,.
| | - Karen C Poh
- Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, ADBF 4015, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Risa Pesapane
- The Ohio State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, 1920 Coffey Rd, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; The Ohio State University, College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, School of Environment and Natural Resources, 2021 Coffey Rd, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Danielle M Tufts
- University of Pittsburgh, School of Public Health, Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, 2119 Public Health, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; University of Pretoria, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Pretoria, South Africa
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3
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Brown JE, Tiffin HS, Pagac A, Poh KC, Evans JR, Miller TM, Herrin BH, Tomlinson T, Sutherland C, Machtinger ET. Differential burdens of blacklegged ticks ( Ixodes scapularis) on sympatric rodent hosts. J Vector Ecol 2023; 49:44-52. [PMID: 38147300 DOI: 10.52707/1081-1710-49.1.44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
In the United States, there has been a steady increase in diagnosed cases of tick-borne diseases in people, most notably Lyme disease. The pathogen that causes Lyme disease, Borrelia burgdorferi, is transmitted by the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis). Several small mammals are considered key reservoirs of this pathogen and are frequently-used hosts by blacklegged ticks. However, limited studies have evaluated between-species host use by ticks. This study compared I. scapularis burdens and tick-associated pathogen presence in wild-caught Clethrionomys gapperi (southern red-backed voles) and Peromyscus spp. (white-footed mice) in forested areas where the habitat of both species overlapped. Rodent trapping data collected over two summers showed a significant difference in the average tick burden between species. Adult Peromyscus spp. had an overall mean of 4.03 ticks per capture, while adult C. gapperi had a mean of 0.47 ticks per capture. There was a significant association between B. burgdorferi infection and host species with more Peromyscus spp. positive samples than C. gapperi (65.8% and 10.2%, respectively). This work confirms significant differences in tick-host use and pathogen presence between sympatric rodent species. It is critical to understand tick-host interactions and tick distributions to develop effective and efficient tick control methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica E Brown
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A.,
| | - Hannah S Tiffin
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Alexandra Pagac
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Jesse R Evans
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Taylor M Miller
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
| | - Brian H Herrin
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - Trey Tomlinson
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - Cameron Sutherland
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine and Pathobiology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, U.S.A
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, U.S.A
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4
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Pagac AA, Geden CJ, Martin GP, Patterson PH, Machtinger ET. Susceptibility of the adult house fly (Diptera: Muscidae) and 3 of its principal parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) to the GHA strain of Beauveria bassiana and 4 isolates from field-collected muscid flies. J Med Entomol 2023; 60:1364-1373. [PMID: 37643752 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjad108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
House fly (Musca domestica L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) populations can negatively impact poultry layer facilities, posing a risk to human and animal health and egg food safety. House flies quickly develop resistance to traditional chemical control methods; therefore, improved biological control may provide opportunities for improved integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Biological control methods currently used include augmentative releases of pteromalid pupal parasitoids and application of the fungal entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin. This study used bioassays to compare the impact of different B. bassiana strains on survival of house flies and of 3 species of filth fly parasitoids. The B. bassiana that were compared were 3 new field-collected isolates, an older field-collected isolate (L90), and a common commercially available strain (GHA). Flies and parasitoids were exposed to filter paper treated with 1.5 × 109 spores of each strain and a control. All field-isolated strains induced lower mean survival times in house flies than GHA did. The results for all species of parasitoids demonstrated less difference among the treatment groups and the control than in-house flies. Although there was some effect of B. bassiana exposure on parasitoid mortality, the expected spatial separation of parasitoids from areas of application may offer some protection. Using the most effective tested strains of B. bassiana and filth fly parasitoids jointly could be a biological component of an IPM plan for fly control in poultry facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra A Pagac
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 06 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Christopher J Geden
- USDA, ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Gregory P Martin
- Pennsylvania State University Cooperative Extension-Poultry, 323 Agricultural Admin Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Paul H Patterson
- Department of Animal Science, Pennsylvania State University, 317 Agricultural and Industries Building University Park, PA 16802, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 06 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, State College, PA 16802, USA
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5
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Olafson PU, Poh KC, Evans JR, Skvarla MJ, Machtinger ET. Limited detection of shared zoonotic pathogens in deer keds and blacklegged ticks co-parasitizing white-tailed deer in the eastern United States. Med Vet Entomol 2023; 37:179-188. [PMID: 36286196 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Deer keds, such as Lipoptena cervi Linnaeus (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), are blood-feeding flies from which several human and animal pathogens have been detected, including Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato Johnson (Spirochaetales: Borreliaceae), the causative agent of Lyme disease. Cervids (Artiodactyla: Cervidae), which are the primary hosts of deer keds, are not natural reservoirs of B. burgdorferi sl, and it has been suggested that deer keds may acquire bacterial pathogens via co-feeding near infected ticks. We screened L. cervi (n = 306) and Ixodes scapularis Say (Ixodida: Ixodidae) (n = 315) collected from 38 white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania for the family Anaplasmataceae, Bartonella spp. (Hyphomicrobiales: Bartonellaceae), Borrelia spp., and Rickettsia spp. (Rickettsiales: Rickettsiaceae). Limited similarity in the bacterial DNA detected between these ectoparasites per host suggested that co-feeding may not be a mechanism by which deer keds acquire these bacteria. The feeding biology and life history of deer keds may impact the observed results, as could the season when specimens were collected. We separately screened L. cervi (n = 410), L. mazamae Róndani (n = 13), L. depressa Say (n = 10), and Neolipoptena ferrisi Bequaert (n = 14) collections from locations within the United States and Canada for the same pathogens. These results highlight the need to further study deer ked-host and deer ked-tick relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA, Pullman, Washington, USA
| | - Jesse R Evans
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael J Skvarla
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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6
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Norris RH, Baker OS, Burgess ER, Tarone A, Gerry A, Trout Fryxell RT, Hinkle NC, Olds C, Boxler D, Wise KL, Machtinger ET, Scott JG. Selection for, and characterization of, fluralaner resistance in the house fly, Musca domestica. Pestic Biochem Physiol 2023; 191:105355. [PMID: 36963950 DOI: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2023.105355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
House flies, Musca domestica (L), are the mechanical vector of >100 human and animal pathogens, including those that are antibiotic-resistant. Given that house flies are associated closely with human and livestock activity, they present medical and veterinary health concerns. Although there are numerous strategies for control of house fly populations, chemical control has been favored in many facilities. Products with pyrethroid active ingredients have been used predominantly for >35 years in space sprays. As a result, strong selection for pyrethroid resistance has led to reduced control of many populations. Reliance on a limited number of insecticides for decades has created fly control problems necessitating the discovery and formulation of new control chemistries. Fluralaner is a relatively new insecticide and acaricide (first reported in 2010), belonging to the isoxazoline class. These insecticides target the glutamate- and gamma-aminobutyric acid-gated (GABA) chloride channels, which is a different mode of action from other insecticides used against house flies. Although is it not currently registered for house fly control in the United States, previous work has shown that fluralaner is highly toxic to house flies and that there was limited cross-resistance found in laboratory strains having high levels of resistance to other insecticides. Herein, we characterized the time and age dependency of fluralaner toxicity, detected cross-resistance in populations from across the United States, and selected a highly resistant (>11,000-fold) house fly strain. We found that the fluralaner LD50 of 18-24 h old flies was 2-fold higher than for 5-6 d old flies. This appears to be due to more rapid penetration of fluralaner into the 5-6 d old flies. Fluralaner resistance was inherited as an intermediate to incompletely dominant trait and was mapped to chromosomes 5 and 3. Resistance could be suppressed to 7-fold with piperonyl butoxide, suggesting that cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated detoxification was a major mechanism of resistance. Decreased penetration was also demonstrated as a mechanism of resistance. The utility of fluralaner for house fly control is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel H Norris
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Oshneil S Baker
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Edwin R Burgess
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Aaron Tarone
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Alec Gerry
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92507, USA
| | - Rebecca T Trout Fryxell
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Nancy C Hinkle
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Cassandra Olds
- Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - David Boxler
- West Central Research, Extension and Education Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, North Platte, NE 69101, USA
| | - Kenneth L Wise
- NYS Integrated Pest Management Program, Cornell AgriTech, Geneva, NY 14456, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
| | - Jeffrey G Scott
- Department of Entomology, Comstock Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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7
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Tiffin HS, Rajotte EG, Sakamoto JM, Machtinger ET. Tick Control in a Connected World: Challenges, Solutions, and Public Policy from a United States Border Perspective. Trop Med Infect Dis 2022; 7:388. [PMID: 36422939 PMCID: PMC9695313 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed7110388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Ticks are able to transmit the highest number of pathogen species of any blood-feeding arthropod and represent a growing threat to public health and agricultural systems worldwide. While there are numerous and varied causes and effects of changes to tick-borne disease (re)emergence, three primary challenges to tick control were identified in this review from a U.S. borders perspective. (1) Climate change is implicated in current and future alterations to geographic ranges and population densities of tick species, pathogens they can transmit, and their host and reservoir species, as highlighted by Ixodes scapularis and its expansion across southern Canada. (2) Modern technological advances have created an increasingly interconnected world, contributing to an increase in invasive tick species introductions through the increased speed and frequency of trade and travel. The introduction of the invasive Haemaphysalis longicornis in the eastern U.S. exemplifies the challenges with control in a highly interconnected world. (3) Lastly, while not a new challenge, differences in disease surveillance, control, and management strategies in bordering countries remains a critical challenge in managing ticks and tick-borne diseases. International inter-agency collaborations along the U.S.-Mexico border have been critical in control and mitigation of cattle fever ticks (Rhipicephalus spp.) and highlight the need for continued collaboration and research into integrated tick management strategies. These case studies were used to identify challenges and opportunities for tick control and mitigation efforts through a One Health framework.
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8
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Pagac AA, Geden CJ, Burgess ER, Riggs MR, Machtinger ET. Filth Fly Parasitoid (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) Monitoring Techniques and Species Composition in Poultry Layer Facilities. J Med Entomol 2022; 59:2006-2012. [PMID: 36130177 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Muscid flies, especially house flies (Musca domestica L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), are a major pest of poultry layer facilities. Augmentative biological control of muscid flies with pteromalid wasps has gained increased attention in recent years. Knowing which pteromalid species are present in a specific area could produce more effective filth fly control. The purpose of this project was to survey parasitoid populations in poultry layer facilities in central and southeastern Pennsylvania from June through September. Two genera of parasitoids, Spalangia and Trichomalopsis, were collected over the course of the survey. Overall, out of 3,724 parasitized pupae the species collected in order of most to least common were Spalangia cameroni Perkins, Spalangia nigroaenea Curtis, Trichomalopsis spp., and Spalangia endius Walker. House fly parasitism overall and by each parasitoid species varied by location and over the four study months. A second objective was to evaluate a new parasitoid trap for surveying parasitoid wasp populations. This device uses a combination of house fly third instars and development media. This was compared to a more traditional method, the sentinel bag, which uses only fly pupae. A higher proportion of Spalangia spp. emerged from the new trap design and more Trichomalopsis spp. emerged from the sentinel bag. This suggests that using this new device alongside the traditional collection method may result in more accurate sampling of pteromalid populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra A Pagac
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 06 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Christopher J Geden
- USDA, ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Edwin R Burgess
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, 970 Natural Area Drive Gainesville, FL 32611-0620, USA
| | - Montana R Riggs
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 06 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, State College, PA 16802, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, 06 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, State College, PA 16802, USA
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Roberts CE, Burgess ER, Miller TM, Wise A, Dickerson CJ, Skvarla MJ, Li AY, Machtinger ET. Tissue‐damaging marking methods do not affect tick burdens on field captured
Peromyscus
spp. WILDLIFE SOC B 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.1385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chloe E. Roberts
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
| | - Edwin R. Burgess
- Entomology and Nematology Department University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
| | - Taylor M. Miller
- Department of Entomology Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
| | - Anna‐Marie Wise
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
| | - Cera J. Dickerson
- Department of Animal Sciences Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
| | - Michael J. Skvarla
- Department of Entomology Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
| | - Andrew Y. Li
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory 10300 Baltimore Avenue Beltsville MD 20705 USA
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- Department of Entomology Pennsylvania State University University Park PA 16802 USA
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10
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Gallagher MR, Kreye JK, Machtinger ET, Everland A, Schmidt N, Skowronski NS. Can restoration of fire-dependent ecosystems reduce ticks and tick-borne disease prevalence in the eastern United States? Ecol Appl 2022; 32:e2637. [PMID: 35426200 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Over the past century, fire suppression has facilitated broad ecological changes in the composition, structure, and function of fire-dependent landscapes throughout the eastern US, which are in decline. These changes have likely contributed mechanistically to the enhancement of habitat conditions that favor pathogen-carrying tick species, key wildlife hosts of ticks, and interactions that have fostered pathogen transmission among them and to humans. While the long-running paradigm for limiting human exposure to tick-borne diseases focuses responsibility on individual prevention, the continued expansion of medically important tick populations, increased incidence of tick-borne disease in humans, and emergence of novel tick-borne diseases highlights the need for additional approaches to stem this public health challenge. Another approach that has the potential to be a cost-effective and widely applied but that remains largely overlooked is the use of prescribed fire to ecologically restore degraded landscapes that favor ticks and pathogen transmission. We examine the ecological role of fire and its effects on ticks within the eastern United States, especially examining the life cycles of forest-dwelling ticks, shifts in regional-scale fire use over the past century, and the concept that frequent fire may have helped moderate tick populations and pathogen transmission prior to the so-called fire-suppression era that has characterized the past century. We explore mechanisms of how fire and ecological restoration can reduce ticks, the potential for incorporating the mechanisms into the broader strategy for managing ticks, and the challenges, limitations, and research needs of prescribed burning for tick reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jesse K Kreye
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Alexis Everland
- New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Forest Fire Service, New Lisbon, New Jersey, USA
| | - Nathaniel Schmidt
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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11
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Green KD, Tiffin HS, Brown JE, Burgess ER, Machtinger ET. Evaluation of tick control tube month of placement and modifications to increase visitation by small mammals. Ecosphere 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kylie D. Green
- Department of Entomology The Pennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania USA
| | - Hannah S. Tiffin
- Department of Entomology The Pennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania USA
| | - Jessica E. Brown
- Department of Entomology The Pennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania USA
| | - Edwin R. Burgess
- Entomology and Nematology Department University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- Department of Entomology The Pennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania USA
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12
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Poh KC, Cole ZT, Smarsh DN, Springer HR, Kelly K, Kenny LB, Machtinger ET. Topical permethrin may increase blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) repellency but is associated with cutaneous irritation in horses. Am J Vet Res 2022; 84:ajvr.22.10.0176. [PMID: 36800301 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.22.10.0176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the safety of repeated applications of permethrin concentrations (0% control, 1.5%, 5%, and 10%) to the necks and faces of horses and assess the efficacy and longevity of permethrin as an equine tick repellent. ANIMALS 5 healthy adult Quarter Horses. PROCEDURES Each treatment was applied to the neck of each horse (0.01 m2) 4 times a day, for up to 10 days. An 8-mm biopsy was taken to evaluate postexposure dermal responses. Any treatments that were not withdrawn were applied to a quadrant of the horse's face 4 times a day, for up to 5 days. For tick bioassays, a treatment was applied to 1 leg of a horse and 5 female blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) were evaluated as "repelled" or "not repelled" by the treatment. The bioassays were repeated up to 5 days, but treatment application took place only on the first day of the experiment. RESULTS Histological results of neck biopsies indicated that more repeated exposures or higher concentrations resulted in more dermal damage. Tick bioassays showed that 5% and 10% permethrin had the greatest efficacy and longevity as a tick repellent, but the differences in tick repellency were not significant overall. CLINICAL RELEVANCE While there was a nonsignificant trend of higher permethrin concentrations repelling more ticks with longer-lasting residual repellent effects, higher concentrations also produced greater skin damage after repeated exposures. These opposing findings emphasize the need for better tick prevention and control methods that balance safety and efficacy for the equine community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Zoey T Cole
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Danielle N Smarsh
- Department of Animal Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Hayley R Springer
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.,Penn State Extension, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Kathleen Kelly
- Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Laura B Kenny
- Penn State Extension, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
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Poh KC, Evans JR, Skvarla MJ, Kent CM, Olafson PU, Hickling GJ, Mullinax JM, Machtinger ET. Patterns of deer ked (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) and tick (Ixodida: Ixodidae) infestation on white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the eastern United States. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:31. [PMID: 35057829 PMCID: PMC8772158 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-05148-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Background
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) host numerous ectoparasitic species in the eastern USA, most notably various species of ticks and two species of deer keds. Several pathogens transmitted by ticks to humans and other animal hosts have also been found in deer keds. Little is known about the acquisition and potential for transmission of these pathogens by deer keds; however, tick-deer ked co-feeding transmission is one possible scenario. On-host localization of ticks and deer keds on white-tailed deer was evaluated across several geographical regions of the eastern US to define tick-deer ked spatial relationships on host deer, which may impact the vector-borne disease ecology of these ectoparasites.
Methods
Ticks and deer keds were collected from hunter-harvested white-tailed deer from six states in the eastern US. Each deer was divided into three body sections, and each section was checked for 4 person-minutes. Differences in ectoparasite counts across body sections and/or states were evaluated using a Bayesian generalized mixed model.
Results
A total of 168 white-tailed deer were inspected for ticks and deer keds across the study sites. Ticks (n = 1636) were collected from all surveyed states, with Ixodes scapularis (n = 1427) being the predominant species. Counts of I. scapularis from the head and front sections were greater than from the rear section. Neotropical deer keds (Lipoptena mazamae) from Alabama and Tennessee (n = 247) were more often found on the rear body section. European deer keds from Pennsylvania (all Lipoptena cervi, n = 314) were found on all body sections of deer.
Conclusions
The distributions of ticks and deer keds on white-tailed deer were significantly different from each other, providing the first evidence of possible on-host niche partitioning of ticks and two geographically distinct deer ked species (L. cervi in the northeast and L. mazamae in the southeast). These differences in spatial distributions may have implications for acquisition and/or transmission of vector-borne pathogens and therefore warrant further study over a wider geographic range and longer time frame.
Graphical Abstract
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14
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Machtinger ET, Brown JE, Burgess ER. Landscape distribution and abundance of animal-associated adult filth flies on commercial swine facilities in North Carolina, US. Med Vet Entomol 2021; 35:633-645. [PMID: 34398989 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Filth flies associated with animal production transmit pathogens to humans and animals, propagate antimicrobial resistance in microbial communities and provoke nuisance litigation. Although dispersal of flies from facilities is often responsible for these negative effects, filth fly research on swine facilities has been limited to within the barns. Filth fly adaptations in space and time, as well as influences of abiotic and biotic factors impact distribution and abundance of animal-associated filth flies on swine production facilities. In this study, fly surveillance was conducted around four swine facilities in Bladen County, North Carolina, U.S.A. from January 2019 to October 2019. Traps were replaced weekly and animal-associated filth flies were identified. Flies were grouped for comparison based on biology and differences in pest management strategies. There were distinct differences in abundance and spatial distribution of different filth fly groups on the swine facilities, which are likely linked to environmental factors like spatial relation to crop production and species phenology. The impact of the observed temporal and spatial distribution and abundance is discussed in the context of filth fly management.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, State College, PA, U.S.A
| | - J E Brown
- Veterinary Entomology Laboratory, State College, PA, U.S.A
| | - E R Burgess
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
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15
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Tiffin HS, Skvarla MJ, Machtinger ET. Tick abundance and life-stage segregation on the American black bear ( Ursus americanus). Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2021; 16:208-216. [PMID: 34703760 PMCID: PMC8523825 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Tick abundance and diagnosed cases of tick-borne diseases have been increasing in the United States. American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations have also been increasing in the eastern United States. As a competent host of several species of ticks and a mammal capable of traveling long distances, the role of black bears as hosts for ticks requires further evaluation. Ectoparasite surveys were conducted on black bears in Pennsylvania to evaluate tick presence, abundance, spatial distribution, and association with Sarcoptes scabiei, the etiological agent of sarcoptic mange, on bears to better understand their role in tick ecology and to improve on-host surveillance techniques. Tick burden was evaluated using standard area sampling (10.16 × 10.16 cm squares) on pre-designated body regions on black bears from June 2018–December 2019. In total, 278 unique individual black bears were evaluated, with all ticks identified as Ixodes scapularis (n = 1976; 76.7% adults, 23.3% immatures). Tick presence differed by body region on bears, with the highest percentage of tick observations located on bear ears and muzzle. Ticks also partitioned on black bears by life-stage, with immature ticks primarily recorded on the lower extremities of bears and adult ticks primarily recorded on the front-quarters of bears. This includes the first known record of I. scapularis larvae parasitizing black bears, and observations of all three mobile life-stages concurrently parasitizing bears. Tick abundance was also statistically significant dependent on season, with the highest abundance of ticks recorded in spring and lowest abundance in fall. Adult ticks were less likely to be present on bears with mange. These data reveal the important role black bears may serve in tick ecology and dispersal as all three mobile life-stages of I. scapularis were found parasitizing a mammal capable of traveling far distances in a region with high numbers of Lyme disease cases. First record of Ixodes scapularis larvae parasitizing black bears. All three I. scapularis mobile life-stages concurrently parasitizing black bears. I. scapularis life-stage segregation on black bears. Standardized tick survey findings can be used to improve on-host surveillance. Bears with sarcoptic mange less likely to have adult ticks present.
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16
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Machtinger ET, Nadolny RM, Vinyard BT, Eisen L, Hojgaard A, Haynes SA, Bowman L, Casal C, Li AY. Spatial Heterogeneity of Sympatric Tick Species and Tick-Borne Pathogens Emphasizes the Need for Surveillance for Effective Tick Control. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2021; 21:843-853. [PMID: 34463140 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2021.0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Three tick species that can transmit pathogen causing disease are commonly found parasitizing people and animals in the mid-Atlantic United States: the blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis Say), the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis [Say]), and the lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum [L.]) (Acari: Ixodidae). The potential risk of pathogen transmission from tick bites acquired at schools in tick-endemic areas is a concern, as school-aged children are a high-risk group for tick-borne disease. Integrated pest management (IPM) is often required in school districts, and continued tick range expansion and population growth will likely necessitate IPM strategies to manage ticks on school grounds. However, an often-overlooked step of tick management is monitoring and assessment of local tick species assemblages to inform the selection of control methodologies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate tick species presence, abundance, and distribution and the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in both questing ticks and those removed from rodent hosts on six school properties in Maryland. Overall, there was extensive heterogeneity in tick species dominance, abundance, and evenness across the field sites. A. americanum and I. scapularis were found on all sites in all years. Overall, A. americanum was the dominant tick species. D. variabilis was collected in limited numbers. Several pathogens were found in both questing ticks and those removed from rodent hosts, although prevalence of infection was not consistent between years. Borrelia burgdorferi, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, Ehrlichia ewingii, and Ehrlichia "Panola Mountain" were identified in questing ticks, and B. burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi were detected in trapped Peromyscus spp. mice. B. burgdorferi was the dominant pathogen detected. The impact of tick diversity on IPM of ticks is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- USDA, ARS, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
| | - Robyn M Nadolny
- Army Public Health Center, Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Lars Eisen
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Andrias Hojgaard
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
| | - Scott A Haynes
- Army Public Health Center, Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Loretta Bowman
- Army Public Health Center, Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Cory Casal
- Army Public Health Center, Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Y Li
- USDA, ARS, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
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17
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Machtinger ET, Springer HR, Brown JE, Olafson PU. Sudden Mortality in Captive White-Tailed Deer With Atypical Infestation of Winter Tick. J Med Entomol 2021; 58:1962-1965. [PMID: 33764454 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In October 2020, three captive male white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus [Zimmermann] (artiodactyla: Cervidae), were found dead in central Pennsylvania and a fourth was euthanized due to extreme lethargy. The deer presented with high burdens of Dermacentor albipictus (Packard) (Ixoda: Ixodidae) (winter tick). There were no other clinical symptoms and deer were in otherwise good physical condition with no observed alopecia. Winter tick epizootics have been associated with mortalities of moose, Alces alces [Linnaeus] (artiodactyla: cervidae), and more recently elk, Cervus canadensis [Erxleben] (artiodactyla: cervidae), in Pennsylvania, but have not been reported in white-tailed deer. Mild winters are favorable to winter ticks and deer producers and managers should be aware of possible infestations as a result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Hayley R Springer
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Jessica E Brown
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Pia U Olafson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Kerrville, TX
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18
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Milholland MT, Eisen L, Nadolny RM, Hojgaard A, Machtinger ET, Mullinax JM, Li AY. Surveillance of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens in Suburban Natural Habitats of Central Maryland. J Med Entomol 2021; 58:1352-1362. [PMID: 33511396 PMCID: PMC10947375 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lyme and other tick-borne diseases are increasing in the eastern United States and there is a lack of research on integrated strategies to control tick vectors. Here we present results of a study on tick-borne pathogens detected from tick vectors and rodent reservoirs from an ongoing 5-yr tick suppression study in the Lyme disease-endemic state of Maryland, where human-biting tick species, including Ixodes scapularis Say (Acari: Ixodidae) (the primary vector of Lyme disease spirochetes), are abundant. During the 2017 tick season, we collected 207 questing ticks and 602 ticks recovered from 327 mice (Peromyscus spp. (Rodentia: Cricetidae)), together with blood and ear tissue from the mice, at seven suburban parks in Howard County. Ticks were selectively tested for the presence of the causative agents of Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato [s.l.]), anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum), babesiosis (Babesia microti), ehrlichiosis (Ehrlichia ewingii, Ehrlichia chaffeensis, and 'Panola Mountain' Ehrlichia) and spotted fever group rickettsiosis (Rickettsia spp.). Peromyscus ear tissue and blood samples were tested for Bo. burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s), A. phagocytophilum, Ba. microti, and Borrelia miyamotoi. We found 13.6% (15/110) of questing I. scapularis nymphs to be Bo. burgdorferi s.l. positive and 1.8% (2/110) were A. phagocytophilum positive among all sites. Borrelia burgdorferi s.s. was found in 71.1% (54/76) of I. scapularis nymphs removed from mice and 58.8% (194/330) of captured mice. Results from study on tick abundance and pathogen infection status in questing ticks, rodent reservoirs, and ticks feeding on Peromyscus spp. will aid efficacy evaluation of the integrated tick management measures being implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T. Milholland
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Bldg. 007, Rm. 301, BARC-West, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705
- AGNR-Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
| | - Lars Eisen
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO
| | - Robyn M. Nadolny
- Tick-Borne Disease Laboratory, Army Public Health Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD
| | - Andrias Hojgaard
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Jennifer M. Mullinax
- AGNR-Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
| | - Andrew Y. Li
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, USDA, ARS, Bldg. 007, Rm. 301, BARC-West, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD 20705
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19
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Milholland MT, Xu G, Rich SM, Machtinger ET, Mullinax JM, Li AY. Pathogen Coinfections Harbored by Adult Ixodes scapularis from White-Tailed Deer Compared with Questing Adults Across Sites in Maryland, USA. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 21:86-91. [PMID: 33316206 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The blacklegged tick, Ixodes scapularis, can acquire and transmit tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) responsible for diseases such as human granulocytic anaplasmosis (Anaplasma phagocytophilum [ANPH]), babesiosis (Babesia microti [BABE]), Lyme borreliosis (Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato [BBSL]), and the relatively novel relapsing fever-like illness, Borrelia miyamotoi (BMIY) disease in the northeastern United States. Coinfections with these pathogens are becoming increasingly more common in I. scapularis and their hosts, likely attributed to their shared enzootic cycles. Urban habitats are favorable to host species such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and these ungulates are known to be important to I. scapularis for reproduction and dispersal in North America. To understand the relationship between TBPs, white-tailed deer, and I. scapularis, we sampled eight sites across central Maryland collecting I. scapularis using standard tick dragging/flagging methods and retrieved others from deer carcasses. Pathogenic TBP species in each tick were determined using qPCR. In total, 903 adult ticks (deer: n = 573; questing: n = 330) revealed landscape-level prevalence of ANPH (27.8%), BABE (1.3%), BBSL (14.6%), and BMIY (0.8%) as singular infections overall. However, secondary coinfections of ANPH and BBSL were highest (9.9%) in ticks feeding from deer while associations of BBSL and BABE (4.2%) were highest in questing ticks. Results from this study provide evidence suggesting that adult I. scapularis acquire pathogenic species through phenologically associated host use, and thus, subsequent infections found in adults may provide insights into coinfection relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew T Milholland
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol & Behavior Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, Maryland, USA.,AGNR-Environmental Science & Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Guang Xu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stephen M Rich
- Department of Microbiology, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jennifer M Mullinax
- AGNR-Environmental Science & Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Y Li
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol & Behavior Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, Maryland, USA
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20
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Machtinger ET, Burgess ER. Evaluation of Filth Fly Species Composition and Abundance Using Two Monitoring Methods in Swine Confinement Housing. J Med Entomol 2020; 57:1812-1820. [PMID: 32516370 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Concentrated swine production can produce large amounts of accumulated waste that may serve as development sites for pest flies. Filth flies are not only a nuisance but can also interfere with animal growth and production and are capable of mechanically transmitting many pathogens to swine on confinement facilities. In addition to production and health concerns, high populations of filth flies developing on concentrated animal facilities may subject producers to nuisance litigation. While litigation against livestock producers associated with pest filth flies has become more frequent and high profile, information on the filth fly fauna in swine facilities in the United States is limited. In this study, filth fly species diversity and population fluctuations were monitored with spot and sticky cards in one sow facility and two finishing facilities in North Carolina. House flies Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) were the dominant species followed by black dump flies Hydrotea (Ophyra) aenescens Weidemann (Diptera: Muscidae). A difference was seen in total spots on cards placed in more central barn locations than towards the outer walls in the sow facility but not the finishing facilities. Mean spots at only one of the finishing facilities exceeded the conventional control threshold of 100 spots/week, in May and June. Fly numbers decreased naturally in the following months, suggesting that standard control thresholds may not accurately inform filth fly control efforts in swine production. Due to their complementary nature, both spot and sticky cards placed in representative locations throughout barns are recommended. However, more swine-specific information is needed for optimizing monitoring methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Edwin R Burgess
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL
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21
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Machtinger ET, Williams SC. Practical Guide to Trapping Peromyscus leucopus (Rodentia: Cricetidae) and Peromyscus maniculatus for Vector and Vector-Borne Pathogen Surveillance and Ecology. J Insect Sci 2020; 20:5948077. [PMID: 33135755 PMCID: PMC7604846 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Arthropods pests are most frequently associated with both plants and vertebrate animals. Ticks, in particular the blacklegged ticks Ixodes scapularis Say and Ixodes pacificus Cooley & Kohls (Acari: Ixodidae), are associated with wildlife hosts and are the primary vectors of Lyme disease, the most frequently reported vector-borne disease in the United States. Immature blacklegged ticks in the eastern United States frequently use small mammals from the genus Peromyscus as hosts. These mice are competent reservoirs for Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease, as well as other tick-borne pathogens. To conduct surveillance on immature ticks and pathogen circulation in hosts, capture and handling of these small mammals is required. While protocols for rearing and pest surveillance on plants are common, there are very few protocols aimed at entomologists to conduct research on vertebrate-arthropod relationships. The goal of this manuscript is to provide a practical template for trapping Peromyscus spp. for vector and vector-borne pathogen surveillance and ecology for professionals that may not have a background in wildlife research. Important considerations are highlighted when targeting P. leucopus Rafinesque and P. maniculatus Wagner. Specifically, for tick and tick-borne disease-related projects, materials that may be required are suggested and references and other resources for researchers beginning a trapping study are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Scott C Williams
- Center for Vector Biology and Zoonotic Diseases, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT
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22
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Poh KC, Skvarla M, Evans JR, Machtinger ET. Collecting Deer Keds (Diptera: Hippoboscidae: Lipoptena Nitzsch, 1818 and Neolipoptena Bequaert, 1942) and Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) From Hunter-Harvested Deer and Other Cervids. J Insect Sci 2020; 20:5948068. [PMID: 33135746 PMCID: PMC7604836 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Deer keds (Diptera: Hippoboscidae: Lipoptena Nitzsch, 1818 and Neolipoptena Bequaert, 1942) are blood-feeding ectoparasites that primarily attack cervids and occasionally bite humans, while ticks may be found on cervids, but are more generalized in host choice. Recent detection of pathogens such as Anaplasma and Borrelia in deer keds and historical infections of tick-borne diseases provides reason to investigate these ectoparasites as vectors. However, previous methods employed to sample deer keds and ticks vary, making it difficult to standardize and compare ectoparasite burdens on cervids. Therefore, we propose a standardized protocol to collect deer keds and ticks from hunter-harvested deer, which combines previous methods of sampling, including timing of collections, dividing sections of the deer, and materials used in the collection process. We tested a three-section and a five-section sampling scheme in 2018 and 2019, respectively, and found that dividing the deer body into five sections provided more specificity in identifying where deer keds and ticks may be found on deer. Data from 2018 suggested that deer keds and ticks were found on all three sections (head, anterior, posterior), while data from 2019 suggested that more Ixodes scapularis were found on the head and deer keds were found on all body sections (head, dorsal anterior, dorsal posterior, ventral anterior, and ventral posterior). The protocol provides an efficient way to sample deer for deer keds and ticks and allows researchers to compare ectoparasite burdens across geographical regions. Furthermore, this protocol can be used to collect other ectoparasites from deer or other cervids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, PA
| | - Michael Skvarla
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, PA
| | - Jesse R Evans
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, PA
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23
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Tiffin HS, Cockerill R, Brown JD, Machtinger ET. A Tissue Digestion Protocol for Measuring Sarcoptes scabiei (Astigmata: Sarcoptidae) Density in Skin Biopsies. J Insect Sci 2020; 20:5948072. [PMID: 33135750 PMCID: PMC7604834 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Sarcoptic mange is a parasitic skin disease caused by the burrowing mite Sarcoptes scabiei that affects a diversity of mammals, including humans, worldwide. In North America, the most commonly affected wildlife includes wild canids, such as coyotes and red foxes, and more recently American black bears in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeast United States. Currently, surveillance for sarcoptic mange in wildlife is syndromic, relying on detection of clinical signs and lesions, such as alopecia and crusting of skin. When possible, skin scrapes are used to identify the causative mite. While skin scrapes are a valuable diagnostic tool to identify mites, this approach has significant limitations when used for quantification of mite burden. To further investigate mite burden in cases of sarcoptic mange, 6-mm punch biopsies were collected from affected skin of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus [Carnivora: Canidae]), a species historically affected by sarcoptic mange, frequently with high mite burdens and severe skin disease, and validated on skin tissue from mange-affected American black bears (Ursus americanus Pallas [Carnivora: Ursidae]) and coyotes (Canis latrans Say [Carnivora: Canidae]). Biopsies were digested by incubating the tissue in potassium hydroxide (KOH) at 55°C. The greatest tissue clearance and lowest mite degradation resulted after 12 h of tissue digestion. The purpose of this manuscript is to describe a methodology for host tissue digestion and mite quantification in cases of sarcoptic mange. This method will provide a valuable surveillance and research tool to better understand sarcoptic mange in wild and domestic animals, with applications to a diversity of other ectoparasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah S Tiffin
- Department of Entomology, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Robert Cockerill
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Justin D Brown
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, 110 Research Unit A, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
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Roden-Reynolds P, Machtinger ET, Li AY, Mullinax JM. Trapping White-Tailed Deer (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) in Suburbia for Study of Tick-Host Interaction. J Insect Sci 2020; 20:5948076. [PMID: 33135754 PMCID: PMC7604841 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/ieaa044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Live capture of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (Zimmermann, 1780) is often necessary for research, population control, disease monitoring, and parasite surveillance. We provide our deer trapping protocol used in a tick-host vector ecology research project and recommendations to improve efficiency of deer trapping programs using drop nets in suburban areas. We captured 125 deer across two trapping seasons. Generally, lower daily minimum temperatures were related to increased capture probability, along with the presence of snow. Our most successful trapping sites were less forested, contained more fragmentation, and greater proportion of human development (buildings, roads, recreational fields). To improve future suburban deer trapping success, trapping efforts should include areas dominated by recreational fields and should not emphasize remote, heavily forested, less fragmented parks. Concurrently, our study illustrated the heterogeneous nature of tick distributions, and we collected most ticks from one trapping site with moderate parameter values between the extremes of the most developed and least developed trapping sites. This emphasized the need to distribute trapping sites to not only increase your capture success but to also trap in areas across varying levels of urbanization and fragmentation to increase the probability of parasite collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Roden-Reynolds
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Agriculture Research Service, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, Office of National Programs, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD
- Department of Entomology, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Andrew Y Li
- Agriculture Research Service, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, Office of National Programs, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD
| | - Jennifer M Mullinax
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
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Jones AM, Van de Wyngaerde MT, Machtinger ET, Rajotte EG, Baker TC. Choice of Laboratory Tissue Homogenizers Matters When Recovering Nucleic Acid From Medically Important Ticks. J Med Entomol 2020; 57:1221-1227. [PMID: 31971588 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Ticks can vector and transmit many pathogens and pose a serious human health threat throughout the world. After collection, many diagnostic laboratories must mechanically disrupt tick specimens for diagnostic testing and research purposes, but few studies have evaluated how well-commercial tissue homogenizers perform this task. We evaluated four commercially available tissue homogenizers: The Bead Ruptor 24 Elite, the Bullet Blender Storm, the gentleMACS Dissociator, and the Precellys 24. We quantitatively compared maceration level, nucleic acid quality, quantity, amplification, and DNA shearing to determine which machines performed the best. The Bead Ruptor 24 Elite had the highest overall score when disrupting a single, uninfected adult Amblyomma americanum (Linnaeus) (Ixodida: Ixodidae) and performed well in follow-on tests including disrupting individual juvenile samples and detecting pathogens from infected samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M Jones
- Vector Diagnostics Department, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | | | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Edwin G Rajotte
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
| | - Thomas C Baker
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
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27
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Fedele K, Poh KC, Brown JE, Jones A, Durden LA, Tiffin HS, Pagac A, Li AY, Machtinger ET. Host distribution and pathogen infection of fleas (Siphonaptera) recovered from small mammals in Pennsylvania. J Vector Ecol 2020; 45:32-44. [PMID: 32492279 DOI: 10.1111/jvec.12371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The number of recognized flea-borne pathogens has increased over the past decade. However, the true number of infections related to all flea-borne pathogens remains unknown. To better understand the enzootic cycle of flea-borne pathogens, fleas were sampled from small mammals trapped in central Pennsylvania. A total of 541 small mammals were trapped, with white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) and southern red-backed voles (Myodes gapperi) accounting for over 94% of the captures. Only P. leucopus were positive for examined blood-borne pathogens, with 47 (18.1%) and ten (4.8%) positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti, respectively. In addition, 61 fleas were collected from small mammals and tested for pathogens. Orchopeas leucopus was the most common flea and Bartonella vinsonii subspecies arupensis, B. microti, and a Rickettsia felis-like bacterium were detected in various flea samples. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of B. microti DNA detected from a flea and the first report of a R. felis-like bacterium from rodent fleas in eastern North America. This study provides evidence of emerging pathogens found in fleas, but further investigation is required to resolve the ecology of flea-borne disease transmission cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaila Fedele
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
| | - Karen C Poh
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
| | - Jessica E Brown
- Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
| | - Amanda Jones
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, 20902, U.S.A
| | - Lance A Durden
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, GA, 30458, U.S.A
| | - Hannah S Tiffin
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
| | - Alexandra Pagac
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
| | - Andrew Y Li
- USDA, ARS, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, U.S.A
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, U.S.A
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Tuorinsky EV, Machtinger ET. Behavioral Inhibition of the House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) When Exposed to Commercial Equine Fly Repellents. J Econ Entomol 2020; 113:518-526. [PMID: 31560398 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toz243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
House flies can have negative consequences on the welfare of horses and other equids. Fly repellents in the form of on-animal sprays, wipes, or spot-ons are the most commonly used fly control method for horses. Many products are available, but repellent efficacy and duration of effectiveness may influence repellent choice by horse owners. A better understanding of the efficacy of common fly repellent products will help guide repellent selection to reduce fly pressure on horses. To evaluate commercially available repellents, house fly behavioral inhibition after application of three products marketed as natural (Ecovet, Equiderma, and Outsmart) and four with synthetic pyrethroids as active ingredients (Bronco, Endure, UltraShield, and Optiforce) was compared at 100, 50, and 25% concentration and at 15, 30, 60, 240, 1,440, and 2,880 min. Time and product were significant at all tested concentrations. The natural products performed as well as or better than the synthetic products at all dilutions and times. Ecovet in particular retained over 75% inhibition of flies for >1 d at the 100 and 50% concentrations. Differences were seen among products with pyrethroids, suggesting that formulation differences significantly affect efficacy. Cost and application suggestions are discussed, and these results will aid horse owners in selecting fly repellents to meet their individual needs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, Pennsylvania State University, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, PA
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Machtinger ET, Li AY. Tick control bait box use by
Peromyscus
spp. influenced by habitat placement but raises questions on disease ecology. Ecosphere 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Erika T. Machtinger
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory USDA, ARS 10300 Baltimore Avenue Beltsville Maryland 20705 USA
| | - Andrew Y. Li
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory USDA, ARS 10300 Baltimore Avenue Beltsville Maryland 20705 USA
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Machtinger ET, Li AY, Liu Y. Tick Bite Risk and Tick-Borne Disease Perceptions of School District Administrators in the Mid-Atlantic United States. J Sch Health 2019; 89:959-968. [PMID: 31612487 DOI: 10.1111/josh.12835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lyme disease is a common tick-borne disease in the northeastern and midwestern United States. School-aged children aged 5-15 years are at high risk for contracting Lyme disease. Many school campuses in the mid-Atlantic United States are in areas that are near, or border with, wooded habitat. METHODS We surveyed school administrators to determine the perception of risk of tick encounters and tick control methods implemented on school campuses in the mid-Atlantic. RESULTS Responses from Pennsylvania and New Jersey districts indicate school district administrators had knowledge of Lyme disease and blacklegged ticks, but knowledge of other tick species and tick-borne diseases was limited. Overall, the results suggest that targeted communication of educational information regarding ticks and tick control to school districts could encourage increased participation in organized tick control or other preventative measures. CONCLUSIONS Overall, respondents were aware of ticks and Lyme disease, but were not aware or had limited awareness of many other tick-borne diseases, and how tick bite risk could be reduced. Targeted communication of educational information regarding ticks and tick control to school districts could provide a framework for reducing tick-borne disease risk in mid-Atlantic school districts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, PA, 16802
| | - Andrew Y Li
- USDA, ARS, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705
| | - Yifen Liu
- Northeastern IPM Center, 340 Tower Road, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853
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Skvarla MJ, Machtinger ET. Deer Keds (Diptera: Hippoboscidae: Lipoptena and Neolipoptena) in the United States and Canada: New State and County Records, Pathogen Records, and an Illustrated Key to Species. J Med Entomol 2019; 56:744-760. [PMID: 30668798 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjy238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Deer keds (Diptera: Hippoboscidae: Lipoptena Nitzsch, 1818 and Neolipoptena Bequaert, 1942) are parasitic flies that primarily attack cervids and occasionally bite humans. Recent reports have documented nearly half a dozen pathogens in deer keds, but it is unknown whether keds are competent vectors. Although geographic ranges of the four North American deer ked species are known generally, precise limits are not well understood. If keds are competent vectors, knowing where they occur will inform the risk of pathogen transmission to people and animals. Herein, we report deer ked occurrence by county in the United States and Canada, including 7 new state and 91 new county/parish/administrative district records. We also include a key to North American deer ked species to facilitate specimen identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Skvarla
- Department of Entomology, Penn State University, University Park, PA
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32
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Roden‐Reynolds P, Hummell G, Machtinger ET, Li AY. Development of nontarget wildlife exclusion devices for small mammal trap protection. WILDLIFE SOC B 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Roden‐Reynolds
- United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research ServicesInvasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory10300 Baltimore AvenueBeltsvilleMD20705USA
| | - Grace Hummell
- United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research ServicesInvasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory10300 Baltimore AvenueBeltsvilleMD20705USA
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research ServicesInvasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory10300 Baltimore AvenueBeltsvilleMD20705USA
| | - Andrew Y. Li
- United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural Research ServicesInvasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory10300 Baltimore AvenueBeltsvilleMD20705USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T. Machtinger
- Penn State University, Department of Entomology, 501 ASI Building, University Park, State College, PA 16082, USA
| | - Christopher J. Geden
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
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Weeks EN, Machtinger ET, Leemon D, Geden CJ. 12. Biological control of livestock pests: entomopathogens. Ecology and Control of Vector-borne Diseases 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-863-6_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emma N.I. Weeks
- University of Florida, Entomology and Nematology Dept., 970 Natural Area Drive, Gainesville, FL 32653, USA
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- Penn State University, Department of Entomology, 501 ASI Building, University Park, State College, PA 16082, USA
| | - Diana Leemon
- Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (Queensland), Agri-Science Queensland, Ecosciences Precinct, GPO Box 267, Brisbane, Queensland, 4001, Australia
| | - Christopher J. Geden
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
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35
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Machtinger ET, Li AY. Evaluation of four commercial natural products for repellency and toxicity against the lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (Acari: Ixodidae). Exp Appl Acarol 2017; 73:451-460. [PMID: 29168105 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-017-0185-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Lone star ticks are aggressive ectoparasites of domestic and wild animals, as well as humans. These ticks can transmit many pathogens that cause disease including Erhlichia and tularemia. Common compounds used for personal protection and area sprays are N-diethyl-3-methyl benzamide (DEET) and permethrin, but public concern over personal and environmental safety require the development of new, safer products. In the current study, four commercially available products (Wondercide, Essentria IC3, Vet's Best, and Mosquito Barrier) were tested for both repellent and toxic effects against lone star tick nymphs and adults. Overall, all four products were more effective against nymphs than against adults. Wondercide and Essentria IC3 were as toxic to nymphs as permethrin at concentrations of 3.13% and higher, and as repellent as DEET at all concentrations. Nymphs were also repelled by Mosquito Barrier and Vet's Best, but these products had about half or less of the repellent effects of Wondercide and Essentria IC3 at most of the concentrations. Adult ticks were repelled similarly by all products at all tested concentrations, but at lower levels than nymphs. Toxicity of the four tested products on adults was similar at concentrations of 12.5% and below, less than half of what was observed with permethrin with declining effectiveness as concentrations decreased. Overall, these four products may offer a natural way to repel lone star ticks, but further field testing is needed to determine rates of application and residual activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika T Machtinger
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, USDA, ARS, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA.
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, 4 Chemical Ecology Laboratory, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| | - Andrew Y Li
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, USDA, ARS, 10300 Baltimore Avenue, Beltsville, MD, 20705, USA
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Weeks ENI, Machtinger ET, Gezan SA, Kaufman PE, Geden CJ. Effects of four commercial fungal formulations on mortality and sporulation in house flies (Musca domestica) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans). Med Vet Entomol 2017; 31:15-22. [PMID: 27781284 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Revised: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The house fly Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae) and stable fly Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) are major pests of livestock. Biological control is an important tool in an integrated control framework. Increased mortality in filth flies has been documented with entomopathogenic fungi, several strains of which are commercially available. Three strains of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) and one strain of Metarhizium brunneum (Petch) (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) were tested in commercial formulations for pathogenicity against house flies and stable flies. There was a significant increase in mortality of house flies with three of the formulations, BotaniGard® ES, Mycotrol® O, and Met52® EC, during days 4-9 in comparison with balEnce™ and the control. In stable flies, mortality rates were highest with Met52® EC, followed by Mycotrol® O, BotaniGard® ES and, finally, balEnce™. There was a significant fungal effect on sporulation in both house flies and stable flies. Product formulation, species differences and fungal strains may be responsible for some of the differences observed. Future testing in field situations is necessary. These commercial biopesticides may represent important tools in integrated fly management programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E N I Weeks
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
| | - E T Machtinger
- Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behaviour Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), Beltsville, MD, U.S.A
| | - S A Gezan
- School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
| | - P E Kaufman
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
| | - C J Geden
- Center for Medical, Agricultural and Veterinary Entomology, USDA-ARS, Gainesville, FL, U.S.A
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Taylor CE, Machtinger ET, Geden CJ, Kramer M. Manure Preferences and Postemergence Learning of Two Filth Fly Parasitoids, Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167893. [PMID: 27936090 PMCID: PMC5148001 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The efficiency of host-seeking behavior is crucial to the reproductive performance of female parasitoids. Initially, parasitoids may use chemical information garnered from the microhabitat in which they emerge to locate hosts. Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor are commercially available parasitoids of filth flies. Postemergence exposure to a specific manure may provide a way to increase parasitism in specific microhabitats found at livestock facilities upon release. In this study, female parasitoids of both species were exposed to equine manure, bovine manure, or clean pupae. Females from each emergence exposure were tested in a two-choice arena (house fly hosts in bovine manure versus clean pupae, equine manure versus clean pupae, and equine manure versus bovine manure) for progeny production. There was a detectable but small effect of postemergence exposure on S. cameroni, but it was not sufficient to reverse innate preferences. Females consistently produced more progeny in hosts found in any manure over clean pupae, and in equine manure over bovine manure. The effect of postemergence exposure on M. raptor was also detectable but small. Females produced equal numbers of progeny in bovine manure versus clean pupae, as opposed to preferring to oviposit in clean pupae as with all other treatments. Preferences by M. raptor were overall less marked than for S. cameroni; indeed most of the variability observed for this species did not result from the treatment design. Residual host mortality was also detectably altered by exposure in both species, but the effect was small. Thus, postemergence exposure did not consistently and effectively manipulate these parasitoids to producing progeny in different exposure manures, suggesting that microhabitat preferences are largely determined by other factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E. Taylor
- Animal Sciences Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL United States of America
| | - Erika T. Machtinger
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Christopher J. Geden
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, USDA-ARS, Gainesville, FL United States of America
| | - Matthew Kramer
- Statistics Group, USDA-ARS, Beltsville, MD United States of America
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Machtinger ET, Leppla NC, Hogsette JA. House and Stable Fly Seasonal Abundance, Larval Development Substrates, and Natural Parasitism on Small Equine Farms in Florida. Neotrop Entomol 2016; 45:433-440. [PMID: 26902468 DOI: 10.1007/s13744-016-0376-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
House flies, Musca domestica Linnaeus, and stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae), are common pests on horse farms. The successful use of pupal parasitoids for management of these pests requires knowledge of seasonal fluctuations and biology of the flies as well as natural parasitism levels. However, these dynamics have not been investigated on small equine farms. A 1-year field study began in July 2010, in north central Florida, to determine adult fly population levels and breeding areas on four small equine farms. Weekly surveillance showed that pest flies were present year-round, though there were differences in adult population levels among farms and seasons. Fly development was not confirmed on two of the four small farms, suggesting that subtle differences in husbandry may adversely affect the development of immature flies. In six substrates previously identified as the most common among the farms, stable fly puparia were found overwhelmingly in hay mixed with equine manure and house fly puparia were found in fresh pine shavings mixed with equine manure. Natural parasitism was minimal as expected, but greatest numbers of natural parasitoids collected were of the genus Spalangia. Differences in adult and immature fly numbers recovered emphasizes the need for farm owners to confirm on-site fly development prior to purchase and release of biological control agents. Additionally, due to the low natural parasitism levels and domination of parasitism by Spalangia cameroni, augmentative releases using this species may be the most effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- Entomology and Nematology Dept, Univ of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
- Entomology and Nematology Dept, Univ of Florida, Charles Steinmetz Hall, 1881 Natural Area Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA.
| | - N C Leppla
- Entomology and Nematology Dept, Univ of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - J A Hogsette
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Machtinger ET, Weeks ENI, Geden CJ. Oviposition Deterrence and Immature Survival of Filth Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) When Exposed to Commercial Fungal Products. J Insect Sci 2016; 16:iew032. [PMID: 27302955 PMCID: PMC4907025 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iew032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Filth flies are pests of livestock, and can transmit pathogens that cause disease to animals and their caretakers. Studies have shown successful infection of adult filth flies following exposure to different strains and formulations of entomopathogenic fungi. This study aimed to examine the effects of commercial formulations of Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) (Moniliales: Moniliaceae) (i.e., BotaniGard ES, Mycotrol O, balEnce), and Metarhizium brunneum (Metsch.) (Ascomycota: Hypocreales) (i.e., Met52 EC), on filth fly oviposition and immature fly survival after exposure. House flies, Musca domestica L., laid significantly fewer eggs on Met52 EC-treated surfaces than on surfaces treated with all other products and the control. Similar numbers of eggs were laid on surfaces treated with all B. bassiana products, but egg production was half of the control. Stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), laid the fewest eggs on Met52 EC- and Mycotrol O-treated surfaces. This species did not distinguish between the remaining products and the control. In a second experiment, house fly eggs were placed on treated cloths so that hatched larvae contacted the treatment prior to development. Met52 EC had the greatest effect on immature survival with a significant reduction in recovered pupae at the medium and high doses of fungi. Overall, Met52 EC, containing M. brunneum, had the greatest effect on house fly and stable fly oviposition deterrence and immature development of house flies. Management implications are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- USDA-ARS, Invasive Insect Biocontrol and Behavior Laboratory, 10300 Baltimore Ave Beltsville, FL 20705, USA
| | - E N I Weeks
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611 USA
| | - C J Geden
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S.W. 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
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Machtinger ET, Geden CJ. Comparison of the Olfactory Preferences of Four of Filth Fly Pupal Parasitoid Species (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) for Hosts in Equine and Bovine Manure. Environ Entomol 2015; 44:1417-24. [PMID: 26314022 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvv120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
House flies (Musca domestica L.) and stable flies (Stomoxys calcitrans (L.)) (Diptera: Muscidae) are common pests in equine and cattle facilities. Pupal parasitoids, primarily in the genera Spalangia and Muscidifurax (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae), can be purchased for biological control of these flies. However, little is known about the host-habitat preferences associated with host-seeking by these parasitoids. The preferences of two Spalangia and two Muscidifurax species to odors associated with house fly hosts in equine and bovine manure were investigated in the laboratory using a Y-tube olfactometer. Odor stimuli from manure without developing flies, third-instar house flies in manure, and fly host puparia in manure were evaluated. In choice tests, S. cameroni and S. endius were strongly attracted to odor associated with equine manure against clean air. Although S. cameroni was attracted to all bovine manure-containing treatments against clean air, S. endius was only attracted to the bovine manure with third-instar flies. There were no significant differences between the Spalangia species in odor responses. Neither Muscidifurax species were attracted to equine manure treatments and were only attracted to the bovine manure with puparia over clean air. In manure comparison studies, bovine treatments with developing flies were more attractive than the equivalent equine treatments to both Muscidifurax species The data suggest that coexistence between the competing pteromalid parasitoids might be promoted by different host-seeking behaviors. Additionally, manure preferences may indicate parasitoid suitability for releases on different livestock and equine facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL, 32611.
| | - C J Geden
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S. W. 23rd Dr., Gainesville, FL 32608
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Machtinger ET, Geden CJ, Teal PE, Leppla NC. Comparison of Host-Seeking Behavior of the Filth Fly Pupal Parasitoids, Spalangia cameroni and Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ Entomol 2015; 44:330-337. [PMID: 26313187 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvu063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The pupal parasitoids, Spalangia cameroni Perkins and Muscidifurax raptor Girault and Sanders, can be purchased for biological control of house flies Musca domestica L. and stable flies Stomoxys calcitrans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae). Little is known about the odors involved in host-seeking behavior of these two species, so odors associated with house flies were investigated in the laboratory using a Y-tube olfactometer. Odor stimuli from house fly host puparia, larvae, pine-shavings bedding with horse manure, and developing flies in the pine-shavings-manure substrate were evaluated in bioassays using the two pteromalid species. In choice tests, naïve female S. cameroni were strongly attracted to odor from the substrate containing house fly larvae and secondarily from the uninfested substrate and substrate with puparia versus humidified and purified air. This species also selected the substrate with larvae versus the substrate with the house fly puparia or uninfested substrate. Muscidifurax raptor was attracted to odor from the substrate containing puparia, washed puparia, and substrate with puparia removed. The data suggest that coexistence between the two pteromalid parasitoids, S. cameroni and M. raptor, might be promoted by different host-seeking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL 32611. Corresponding author, e-mail:
| | - C J Geden
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S. W. 23rd Dr., Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - P E Teal
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S. W. 23rd Dr., Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - N C Leppla
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL 32611
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Machtinger ET, Geden CJ, Hogsette JA, Leppla NC. Development and Oviposition Preference of House Flies and Stable Flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in Six Substrates From Florida Equine Facilities. J Med Entomol 2014; 51:1144-1150. [PMID: 26309300 DOI: 10.1603/me14040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
House flies, Musca domestica L., and stable flies, Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), (Diptera: Muscidae), common pests on equine facilities, were studied in the laboratory to determine the success and duration of larval development and oviposition preferences on six substrates commonly found on equine facilities. Substrates tested were hay soiled with urine and manure, fresh horse manure, pine shaving bedding soiled with urine and manure (<12 h old), pine shaving bedding soiled with urine and manure (aged >72 h in a manure pile), builders sand bedding soiled with urine and manure aged 3 d, and soil from an overgrazed pasture mixed with urine and manure of variable age. House fly larvae failed to develop into adults in hay, soil, and sand substrates. Stable flies preferred to oviposit on substrates with plant material and not on fresh manure. However, when eggs were added to the substrates, pupariation was maximal in fresh manure and the fresh pine shaving substrate. Stable flies developed in all six equine substrates, but development was less successful on the substrates with soil. In choice tests, fresh manure and the fresh pine shaving substrates were the most attractive for house fly oviposition. These substrates also yielded the greatest number of house fly puparia from artificially added eggs. An understanding of oviposition preferences and differential larval development of house flies and stable flies on these substrates may help develop options for reducing pest populations by effectively managing equine waste and selecting appropriate bedding materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- E T Machtinger
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL 32611.
| | - C J Geden
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S. W. 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - J A Hogsette
- USDA-ARS, Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, 1600 S. W. 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - N C Leppla
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, P.O. Box 110620, Gainesville, FL 32611
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