Beneficial rhizobacteria Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 induce major transcriptional changes in plant sugar transport

From intercropping to monocropping: The effects of Pseudomonas strain to facilitate nutrient efficiency in peanut and soil

As an oilseed crop, the yield and quality of peanuts are severely constrained by nutrient deficiencies, particularly in calcareous soils in northern China. Maize-peanut intercropping is an effective strategy to enhance mineral nutrient efficiency in peanuts via plant-microbe interaction, but the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we conducted experiments using a Pseudomonas strain (Pse.IP6) with diverse beneficial characteristics, which was isolated from the rhizosphere of intercropped peanuts. Additionally, Pse.IP6 exhibits high phylogenetic similarity with the Amplicon Sequence Variants 48 (ASV48) which belongs to Pseudomonas and is positively correlated with Fe in plants and soil in intercropping. To confirm the plant growth-promoting potential of Pse.IP6 and its role in intercropping advantage, we constructed pot experiments. Results revealed that Pse.IP6 promoted shoot growth and root development, as well significantly enhanced SPAD value, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate of peanut leaves. Moreover, the application of Pse.IP6 resulted in a notable accumulation of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) in shoot and active iron (Fe) in leaves, accompanied by an increased K-N ratio. The primary reason for the nutrient promotion is the enhancement of the bioavailability of nitrate, ammonium, P, K, and Fe in the rhizosphere. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that Pse.IP6, enriched in intercropping peanut, is a plant growth-promoting bacteria, represented by transferring the intercropping advantage on nutrients activation to monocropping peanuts. Our results offer insights into plant-rhizobacteria interaction mechanisms and therefore provide a rhizobacteria-based pathway to improve nutrient efficiency and productivity of crops.

Phytosulfokine downregulates defense-related WRKY transcription factors and attenuates pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity

Phytosulfokine (PSK) is a plant growth-promoting peptide hormone that is perceived by its cell surface receptors PSKR1 and PSKR2 in Arabidopsis. Plants lacking the PSK receptors show phenotypes consistent with PSK signaling repressing some plant defenses. To gain further insight into the PSK signaling mechanism, comprehensive transcriptional profiling of Arabidopsis treated with PSK was performed, and the effects of PSK treatment on plant defense readouts were monitored. Our study indicates that PSK's major effect is to downregulate defense-related genes; it has a more modest effect on the induction of growth-related genes. WRKY transcription factors (TFs) emerged as key regulators of PSK-responsive genes, sharing commonality with a pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) responses, flagellin 22 (flg22), but exhibiting opposite regulatory directions. These PSK-induced transcriptional changes were accompanied by biochemical and physiological changes that reduced PAMP responses, notably mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK) phosphorylation (previously implicated in WRKY activation) and the cell wall modification of callose deposition. Comparison with previous studies using other growth stimuli (the sulfated plant peptide containing sulfated tyrosine [PSY] and Pseudomonas simiae strain WCS417) also reveals WRKY TFs' overrepresentations in these pathways, suggesting a possible shared mechanism involving WRKY TFs for plant growth-defense trade-off.

Sugar transporters spatially organize microbiota colonization along the longitudinal root axis of Arabidopsis

Plant roots are functionally heterogeneous in cellular architecture, transcriptome profile, metabolic state, and microbial immunity. We hypothesized that axial differentiation may also impact spatial colonization by root microbiota along the root axis. We developed two growth systems, ArtSoil and CD-Rhizotron, to grow and then dissect Arabidopsis thaliana roots into three segments. We demonstrate that distinct endospheric and rhizosphere bacterial communities colonize the segments, supporting the hypothesis of microbiota differentiation along the axis. Root metabolite profiling of each segment reveals differential metabolite enrichment and specificity. Bioinformatic analyses and GUS histochemistry indicate microbe-induced accumulation of SWEET2, 4, and 12 sugar uniporters. Profiling of root segments from sweet mutants shows altered spatial metabolic profiles and reorganization of endospheric root microbiota. This work reveals the interdependency between root metabolites and microbial colonization and the contribution of SWEETs to spatial diversity and stability of microbial ecosystem.

The AT-hook protein AHL29 promotes Bacillus subtilis colonization by suppressing SWEET2-mediated sugar retrieval in Arabidopsis roots

Beneficial Bacillus subtilis (BS) symbiosis could combat root pathogenesis, but it relies on root-secreted sugars. Understanding the molecular control of sugar flux during colonization would benefit biocontrol applications. The SWEET (Sugar Will Eventually Be Exported Transporter) uniporter regulates microbe-induced sugar secretion from roots; thus, its homologs may modulate sugar distribution upon BS colonization. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction revealed that gene transcripts of SWEET2, but not SWEET16 and 17, were significantly induced in seedling roots after 12 h of BS inoculation. Particularly, SWEET2-β-glucuronidase fusion proteins accumulated in the apical mature zone where BS abundantly colonized. Yet, enhanced BS colonization in sweet2 mutant roots suggested a specific role for SWEET2 to constrain BS propagation, probably by limiting hexose secretion. By employing yeast one-hybrid screening and ectopic expression in Arabidopsis protoplasts, the transcription factor AHL29 was identified to function as a repressor of SWEET2 expression through the AT-hook motif. Repression occurred despite immunity signals. Additionally, enhanced SWEET2 expression and reduced colonies were specifically detected in roots of BS-colonized ahl29 mutant. Taken together, we propose that BS colonization may activate repression of AHL29 on SWEET2 transcription that would be enhanced by immunity signals, thereby maintaining adequate sugar secretion for a beneficial Bacillus association.

Arabidopsis thaliana Early Foliar Proteome Response to Root Exposure to the Rhizobacterium Pseudomonas simiae WCS417

Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium that improves plant health and development. In this study, we investigate the early leaf responses of Arabidopsis thaliana to WCS417 exposure and the possible involvement of formate dehydrogenase (FDH) in such responses. In vitro-grown A. thaliana seedlings expressing an FDH::GUS reporter show a significant increase in FDH promoter activity in their roots and shoots after 7 days of indirect exposure (without contact) to WCS417. After root exposure to WCS417, the leaves of FDH::GUS plants grown in the soil also show an increased FDH promoter activity in hydathodes. To elucidate early foliar responses to WCS417 as well as FDH involvement, the roots of A. thaliana wild-type Col and atfdh1-5 knock-out mutant plants grown in soil were exposed to WCS417, and proteins from rosette leaves were subjected to proteomic analysis. The results reveal that chloroplasts, in particular several components of the photosystems PSI and PSII, as well as members of the glutathione S-transferase family, are among the early targets of the metabolic changes induced by WCS417. Taken together, the alterations in the foliar proteome, as observed in the atfdh1-5 mutant, especially after exposure to WCS417 and involving stress-responsive genes, suggest that FDH is a node in the early events triggered by the interactions between A. thaliana and the rhizobacterium WCS417. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Metabolome and transcriptome reprogramming underlying tomato drought resistance triggered by a Pseudomonas strain

Although amelioration of drought stress by Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is a well-documented phenomenon, the combined molecular and metabolic mechanisms governing this process remain unclear. In these lines, the present study aimed to provide new insights in the underlying drought attenuating mechanisms of tomato plants inoculated with a PGP Pseudomonas putida strain, by using a combination of metabolomic and transcriptomic approaches. Following Differentially Expressed Gene analysis, it became evident that inoculation resulted in a less disturbed plant transcriptome upon drought stress. Untargeted metabolomics highlighted the differential metabolite accumulation upon inoculation, as well as the less metabolic reprograming and the lower accumulation of stress-related metabolites for inoculated stressed plants. These findings were in line with morpho-physiological evidence of drought stress mitigation in the inoculated plants. The redox state modulation, the more efficient nitrogen assimilation, as well as the differential changes in amino acid metabolism, and the induction of the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway, were the main drought-attenuating mechanisms in the SAESo11-inoculated plants. Shifts in pathways related to hormonal signaling were also evident upon inoculation at a transcript level and in conjunction with carbon metabolism regulation, possibly contributed to a drought-attenuation preconditioning. The identified signatory molecules of SAESo11-mediated priming against drought included aspartate, myo-inositol, glutamate, along with key genes related to trehalose, tryptophan and cysteine synthesis. Taken together, SAESo11-inoculation provides systemic effects encompassing both metabolic and regulatory functions, supporting both seedling growth and drought stress amelioration.

Carbohydrate dynamics in Populus trees under drought: An expression atlas of genes related to sensing, translocation, and metabolism across organs

In trees, nonstructural carbohydrates (NSCs) serve as long-term carbon storage and long-distance carbon transport from source to sink. NSC management in response to drought stress is key to our understanding of drought acclimation. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying these processes remain unclear. By combining a transcriptomic approach with NSC quantification in the leaves, stems, and roots of Populus alba under drought stress, we analyzed genes from 29 gene families related to NSC signaling, translocation, and metabolism. We found starch depletion across organs and accumulation of soluble sugars (SS) in the leaves. Activation of the trehalose-6-phosphate/SNF1-related protein kinase (SnRK1) signaling pathway across organs via the suppression of class I TREHALOSE-PHOSPHATE SYNTHASE (TPS) and the expression of class II TPS genes suggested an active response to drought. The expression of SnRK1α and β subunits, and SUCROSE SYNTHASE6 supported SS accumulation in leaves. The upregulation of active transporters and the downregulation of most passive transporters implied a shift toward active sugar transport and enhanced regulation over partitioning. SS accumulation in vacuoles supports osmoregulation in leaves. The increased expression of sucrose synthesis genes and reduced expression of sucrose degradation genes in the roots did not coincide with sucrose levels, implying local sucrose production for energy. Moreover, the downregulation of invertases in the roots suggests limited sucrose allocation from the aboveground organs. This study provides an expression atlas of NSC-related genes that respond to drought in poplar trees, and can be tested in tree improvement programs for adaptation to drought conditions.

Genome-wide fitness profiling reveals molecular mechanisms that bacteria use to interact with Trichoderma atroviride exometabolites

Trichoderma spp. are ubiquitous rhizosphere fungi capable of producing several classes of secondary metabolites that can modify the dynamics of the plant-associated microbiome. However, the bacterial-fungal mechanisms that mediate these interactions have not been fully characterized. Here, a random barcode transposon-site sequencing (RB-TnSeq) approach was employed to identify bacterial genes important for fitness in the presence of Trichoderma atroviride exudates. We selected three rhizosphere bacteria with RB-TnSeq mutant libraries that can promote plant growth: the nitrogen fixers Klebsiella michiganensis M5aI and Herbaspirillum seropedicae SmR1, and Pseudomonas simiae WCS417. As a non-rhizosphere species, Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was also included. From the RB-TnSeq data, nitrogen-fixing bacteria competed mainly for iron and required the siderophore transport system TonB/ExbB for optimal fitness in the presence of T. atroviride exudates. In contrast, P. simiae and P. putida were highly dependent on mechanisms associated with membrane lipid modification that are required for resistance to cationic antimicrobial peptides (CAMPs). A mutant in the Hog1-MAP kinase (Δtmk3) gene of T. atroviride showed altered expression patterns of many nonribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) biosynthetic gene clusters with potential antibiotic activity. In contrast to exudates from wild-type T. atroviride, bacterial mutants containing lesions in genes associated with resistance to antibiotics did not show fitness defects when RB-TnSeq libraries were exposed to exudates from the Δtmk3 mutant. Unexpectedly, exudates from wild-type T. atroviride and the Δtmk3 mutant rescued purine auxotrophic mutants of H. seropedicae, K. michiganensis and P. simiae. Metabolomic analysis on exudates from wild-type T. atroviride and the Δtmk3 mutant showed that both strains excrete purines and complex metabolites; functional Tmk3 is required to produce some of these metabolites. This study highlights the complex interplay between Trichoderma-metabolites and soil bacteria, revealing both beneficial and antagonistic effects, and underscoring the intricate and multifaceted nature of this relationship.

Azospirillum brasilense activates peroxidase-mediated cell wall modification to inhibit root cell elongation

The molecular mechanism of beneficial bacterium Azospirillum brasilense-mediated root developmental remain elusive. A. brasilense elicited extensively transcriptional changes but inhibited primary root elongation in Arabidopsis. By analyzing root cell type-specific developmental markers, we demonstrated that A. brasilense affected neither overall organization nor cell division of primary root meristem. The cessation of primary root resulted from reduction of cell elongation, which is probably because of bacterially activated peroxidase that will lead to cell wall cross-linking at consuming of H2O2. The activated peroxidase combined with downregulated cell wall loosening enzymes consequently led to cell wall thickness, whereas inhibiting peroxidase restored root growth under A. brasilense inoculation. We further showed that peroxidase activity was probably promoted by cadaverine secreted by A. brasilense. These results suggest that A. brasilense inhibits root elongation by activating peroxidase and inducing cell wall modification in Arabidopsis, in which cadaverine released by A. brasilense is a potential signal compound.

PUB30-mediated downregulation of the HB24-SWEET11 module is involved in root growth inhibition under salt stress by attenuating sucrose supply in Arabidopsis

One of the strategies that plants adopt to cope with an unfavorable environment is to sacrifice their growth for tolerance. Although moderate salt stress can induce root growth inhibition, the molecular mechanisms regulating this process have yet to be elucidated. Here, we found that overexpression of a zinc finger-homeodomain family transcription factor, HOMEOBOX PROTEIN 24 (HB24), led to longer primary roots than in the wild-type in the presence of 125 mM NaCl, whereas this phenotype was reversed for the hb24 loss-of-function mutant, indicating a negative impact of HB24 on salt-induced root growth inhibition. We then found that salt stress triggered the degradation of HB24 via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, as mediated by a plant U-box type E3 ubiquitin ligase 30 (PUB30) that directly targets HB24. We verified that HB24 is able to directly bind to the promoters of Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporter 11/12 (SWEET11/12) to regulate their expression in roots. Through genetic and biochemical assays, we further demonstrated that the HB24-SWEET11 module plays a negative role in salt-induced root growth inhibition. Therefore, we propose that under salt stress, PUB30 mediates HB24's degradation, thereby downregulating the expression of SWEET11, resulting in reduced sucrose supply and root growth inhibition.

AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 transporters function in tandem to modulate sugar flux in plants

The sugar will eventually be exported transporter (SWEET) members in Arabidopsis, AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 are the important sucrose efflux transporters that act synergistically to perform distinct physiological roles. These two transporters are involved in apoplasmic phloem loading, seed filling, and sugar level alteration at the site of pathogen infection. Here, we performed the structural analysis of the sucrose binding pocket of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 using molecular docking followed by rigorous molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We observed that the sucrose molecule binds inside the central cavity and in the middle of the transmembrane (TM) region of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12, that allows the alternate access to the sucrose molecule from either side of the membrane during transport. Both AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12, shares the similar amino acid residues that interact with sucrose molecule. Further, to achieve more insights on the role of these two transporters in other plant species, we did the phylogenetic and the in-silico analyses of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 orthologs from 39 economically important plants. We reported the extensive information on the gene structure, protein domain and cis-acting regulatory elements of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 orthologs from different plants. The cis-elements analysis indicates the involvement of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 orthologs in plant development and also during abiotic and biotic stresses. Both in silico and in planta expression analysis indicated AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 are well-expressed in the Arabidopsis leaf tissues. However, the orthologs of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 showed the differential expression pattern with high or no transcript expression in the leaf tissues of different plants. Overall, these results offer the new insights into the functions and regulation of AtSWEET11 and AtSWEET12 orthologs from different plant species. This might be helpful in conducting the future studies to understand the role of these two crucial transporters in Arabidopsis and other crop plants.

Physiological implications of SWEETs in plants and their potential applications in improving source-sink relationships for enhanced yield

The sugars will eventually be exported transporters (SWEET) family of transporters in plants is identified as a novel class of sugar carriers capable of transporting sugars, sugar alcohols and hormones. Functioning in intercellular sugar transport, SWEETs influence a wide range of physiologically important processes. SWEETs regulate the development of sink organs by providing nutritional support from source leaves, responses to abiotic stresses by maintaining intracellular sugar concentrations, and host-pathogen interactions through the modulation of apoplastic sugar levels. Many bacterial and fungal pathogens activate the expression of SWEET genes in species such as rice and Arabidopsis to gain access to the nutrients that support virulence. The genetic manipulation of SWEETs has led to the generation of bacterial blight (BB)-resistant rice varieties. Similarly, while the overexpression of the SWEETs involved in sucrose export from leaves and pathogenesis led to growth retardation and yield penalties, plants overexpressing SWEETs show improved disease resistance. Such findings demonstrate the complex functions of SWEETs in growth and stress tolerance. Here, we review the importance of SWEETs in plant-pathogen and source-sink interactions and abiotic stress resistance. We highlight the possible applications of SWEETs in crop improvement programmes aimed at improving sink and source strengths important for enhancing the sustainability of yield. We discuss how the adverse effects of the overexpression of SWEETs on plant growth may be overcome.

Impairment of sugar transport in the vascular system acts on nitrogen remobilization and nitrogen use efficiency in Arabidopsis

Carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) metabolisms have long been known to be coupled, and this is required for adjusting nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Despite this intricate relationship, it is still unclear how deregulation of sugar transport impacts N allocation. Here, we investigated in Arabidopsis the consequences of the simultaneous downregulation of the genes coding for the sugar transporters SWEET11, SWEET12, SWEET16, and SWEET17 on various anatomical and physiological traits ranging from the stem's vascular system development to plant biomass production, seed yield, and N remobilization and use efficiency. Our results show that intracellular sugar exchanges mediated by SWEET16 and SWEET17 proteins specifically impact vascular development but do not play a significant role in the distribution of N. Most importantly, we showed that the double mutant swt11 swt12, which has an impacted vascular development, displays an improved NUE and nitrogen remobilization to the seeds. In addition, a significant negative correlation between sugar and amino acids contents and the inflorescence stem radial growth exists, highlighting the complex interaction between the maintenance of C/N homeostasis and the inflorescence stem development. Our results thus deepen the link between sugar transport, C/N allocation, and vascular system development.

Overview of biofertilizers in crop production and stress management for sustainable agriculture

With the increase in world population, the demography of humans is estimated to be exceeded and it has become a major challenge to provide an adequate amount of food, feed, and agricultural products majorly in developing countries. The use of chemical fertilizers causes the plant to grow efficiently and rapidly to meet the food demand. The drawbacks of using a higher quantity of chemical or synthetic fertilizers are environmental pollution, persistent changes in the soil ecology, physiochemical composition, decreasing agricultural productivity and cause several health hazards. Climatic factors are responsible for enhancing abiotic stress on crops, resulting in reduced agricultural productivity. There are various types of abiotic and biotic stress factors like soil salinity, drought, wind, improper temperature, heavy metals, waterlogging, and different weeds and phytopathogens like bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes which attack plants, reducing crop productivity and quality. There is a shift toward the use of biofertilizers due to all these facts, which provide nutrition through natural processes like zinc, potassium and phosphorus solubilization, nitrogen fixation, production of hormones, siderophore, various hydrolytic enzymes and protect the plant from different plant pathogens and stress conditions. They provide the nutrition in adequate amount that is sufficient for healthy crop development to fulfill the demand of the increasing population worldwide, eco-friendly and economically convenient. This review will focus on biofertilizers and their mechanisms of action, role in crop productivity and in biotic/abiotic stress tolerance.

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium Pseudomonas sp. CM11 specifically induces lateral roots

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria are involved in altering secondary root (SR) formation, but hitherto there has been no distinction between the different types of SRs upon induction of soil biota, and the genetic pathways involved. By using plate and soil systems, we studied the effects of the Pseudomonas strains CM11 and WCS417 on plant performance with a focus on root development. Through a combination of cellular, molecular and genetic analyses, we investigated the type of SRs induced upon CM11 and WCS417 root inoculation using genetic pathways associated with specific SR types. CM11 was shown to affect the root architecture differently from WCS417. CM11 inoculation leads to primary root arrest, whereas WCS417 reveals a longer primary root. Both CM11 and WCS417 activate the PLETHORA 3,5,7-controlled lateral root pathway, rather than the WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 11,12-controlled adventitious (lateral) root pathway. In addition, CM11 promotes plant growth in model and various crop species. It improves plant fitness traits, such as bigger shoots, faster bolting and higher yield in terms of seeds. Our results indicate that the root system architecture can be promoted by activation of PLETHORA 3,5,7 dependent primed lateral pre-branch sites upon inoculation with CM11, which creates great potential to gain a better understanding of root plasticity.

Carbon fluxes and environmental interactions during legume development, with a specific focus on Pisum sativum

Grain legumes are major food crops cultivated worldwide for their seeds with high nutritional content. To answer the growing concern about food safety and protein autonomy, legume cultivation must increase in the coming years. In parallel, current agricultural practices are facing environmental challenges, including global temperature increase and more frequent and severe episodes of drought stress. Crop yield directly relies on carbon allocation and is particularly affected by these global changes. We review the current knowledge on source-sink relationships and carbon resource allocation at all developmental stages, from germination to vegetative growth and seed production in grain legumes, focusing on pea (Pisum sativum). We also discuss how these source-sink relationships and carbon fluxes are influenced by biotic and abiotic factors. Major agronomic traits, including seed yield and quality, are particularly impacted by drought, temperatures, salinity, waterlogging, or pathogens and can be improved through the promotion of beneficial soil microorganisms or through optimized plant carbon resource allocation. Altogether, our review highlights the need for a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms regulating carbon fluxes from source leaves to sink organs, roots, and seeds. These advancements will further improve our understanding of yield stability and stress tolerance and contribute to the selection of climate-resilient crops.

The cytokinin-producing plant beneficial bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens G20-18 primes tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) for enhanced drought stress responses

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are known for exerting beneficial effects on plant growth and tolerance to plant pathogens. However, their specific role in mediating protection against abiotic stress remains underexplored. The aim of this study was to characterise the ability of the cytokinin-producing beneficial bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens G20-18 to enhance tomato growth and boost tolerance to drought stress. Tomato seedlings were root inoculated and their growth and physiological and molecular responses assessed under well-watered conditions and also in response to progressive drought stress and a subsequent recovery period. Root inoculation with G20-18 had a significant positive impact on tomato growth. Furthermore, G20-18 inoculated and drought-stressed plants showed higher leaf chlorophyll and abscisic acid (ABA) content and stomatal closure than non-inoculated controls. Root inoculation also increased the activity of different carbohydrate metabolism enzymes, which are important for root and leaf growth and development in drought stressed plants. A significant increase in the activity of different antioxidant enzymes and total antioxidant capacity correlated with elevated levels of relevant secondary metabolites, such as phenolics, anthocyanins and flavonoids. RNA sequencing revealed distinct qualitative and quantitative differences in gene regulation in response to G20-18. Notably, the number of genes differentially regulated in response to G20-18 was approximately sevenfold higher during drought stress, indicating that root inoculation with the bacteria primed the plants for a much stronger transcriptionally regulated systemic drought stress response. The regulated genes are related to phenylalanine metabolism and other key processes linked to plant growth, development and drought stress resilience. A role of the ability of G20-18 to produce the plant hormone cytokinin for interaction with tomato was established by the cytokinin-deficient biosynthesis mutants CNT1 and CNT2. In comparison with G20-18, the inoculation of plants with CNT1 resulted in a reduced number of differentially regulated genes. The relative change was most prominent under well-watered conditions with a 85 % reduction, corresponding to 462 genes. However, under drought conditions the absolute number of differentially regulated genes was reduced by even 2219 in response to the CNT1 mutant. The relevance of the ability of G20-18 to produce cytokinins for interaction with plants was also evident from differences in growth and specific cell and ecophysiological parameters in response to CNT1 and CNT2. These findings provide novel insights about G20-18's ability to improve drought stress responses and the role of interkingdom signalling by bacterial-derived cytokinins, and contribute to enhance the robustness of the practical application of these microorganisms to improve crop resilience in agricultural production.

The Arabidopsis transcription factors AtPHL1 and AtHB23 act together promoting carbohydrate transport from pedicel-silique nodes to seeds

Carbohydrates are produced in green tissues through photosynthesis and then transported to sink tissues. Carbon partitioning is a strategic process, fine regulated, involving specific sucrose transporters in each connecting tissue. Here we report that a screening of an Arabidopsis transcription factor (TF) library using the homeodomain-leucine zipper I member AtHB23 as bait, allowed identifying the TF AtPHL1 interacting with the former. An independent Y2H assay, and in planta by BiFC, confirmed such interaction. AtHB23 and AtPHL1 coexpressed in the pedicel-silique nodes and the funiculus. Mutant plants (phl1, and amiR23) showed a marked reduction of lipid content in seeds, although lipid composition did not change compared to the wild type. While protein and carbohydrate contents were not significantly different between mutants and control mature seeds, we observed a reduced carbohydrate content in mutant plants young siliques (7 days after pollination). Moreover, using a CFDA probe, we revealed an impaired transport to the seeds, and the gene encoding the carbohydrate transporters SWEET10 and SWEET11, usually expressed in connecting tissues, was repressed in the amiR23 and phl1 mutant plants. Altogether, the results indicated that AtHB23 and AtPHL1 act together, promoting sucrose transport, and the lack of any of them provoked a reduction in seeds lipid content.

Induced Systemic Resistance for Improving Plant Immunity by Beneficial Microbes

Plant beneficial microorganisms improve the health and growth of the associated plants. Application of beneficial microbes triggers an enhanced resistance state, also termed as induced systemic resistance (ISR), in the host, against a broad range of pathogens. Upon the activation of ISR, plants employ long-distance systemic signaling to provide protection for distal tissue, inducing rapid and strong immune responses against pathogens invasions. The transmission of ISR signaling was commonly regarded to be a jasmonic acid- and ethylene-dependent, but salicylic acid-independent, transmission. However, in the last decade, the involvement of both salicylic acid and jasmonic acid/ethylene signaling pathways and the regulatory roles of small RNA in ISR has been updated. In this review, the plant early recognition, responsive reactions, and the related signaling transduction during the process of the plant-beneficial microbe interaction was discussed, with reflection on the crucial regulatory role of small RNAs in the beneficial microbe-mediated ISR.

Cellular export of sugars and amino acids: role in feeding other cells and organisms

Sucrose, hexoses, and raffinose play key roles in the plant metabolism. Sucrose and raffinose, produced by photosynthesis, are translocated from leaves to flowers, developing seeds and roots. Translocation occurs in the sieve elements or sieve tubes of angiosperms. But how is sucrose loaded into and unloaded from the sieve elements? There seem to be two principal routes: one through plasmodesmata and one via the apoplasm. The best-studied transporters are the H+/SUCROSE TRANSPORTERs (SUTs) in the sieve element-companion cell complex. Sucrose is delivered to SUTs by SWEET sugar uniporters that release these key metabolites into the apoplasmic space. The H+/amino acid permeases and the UmamiT amino acid transporters are hypothesized to play analogous roles as the SUT-SWEET pair to transport amino acids. SWEETs and UmamiTs also act in many other important processes-for example, seed filling, nectar secretion, and pollen nutrition. We present information on cell type-specific enrichment of SWEET and UmamiT family members and propose several members to play redundant roles in the efflux of sucrose and amino acids across different cell types in the leaf. Pathogens hijack SWEETs and thus represent a major susceptibility of the plant. Here, we provide an update on the status of research on intercellular and long-distance translocation of key metabolites such as sucrose and amino acids, communication of the plants with the root microbiota via root exudates, discuss the existence of transporters for other important metabolites and provide potential perspectives that may direct future research activities.

Biocontrol of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita by a nematicidal bacterium Pseudomonas simiae MB751 with cyclic dipeptide

BACKGROUND

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs) are harmful plant-parasitic nematodes that cause serious damage to plant hosts. In the long-term practice of RKN management, bacterial nematicides have attracted increasing attention as an effective biocontrol means. Here we determined the active substances against Meloidogyne incognita from a nematicidal bacterium, developed a biocontrol agent (BCA) based on optimized culture processes. The effects of the BCA on RKN control and plant growth-promotion were evaluated in tomato pot trials.

RESULTS

Pseudomonas simiae strain MB751 exhibiting significant nematicidal activity against M. incognita second-stage juveniles (J2) with approximately 80% mortality (with culture supernatant, 96% volume percentage) was isolated from a vineyard. A set of purification and identification experiments was performed to determine the main nematicidal component in MB751. A cyclic dipeptide Cyclo(L-Pro-L-Leu) was identified with a lethal concentration necessary to kill 50% of the population (LC₅₀ ) of 65.3 μg mL^-1 against M. incognita J2. Following optimization trials on culture medium/fermentation conditions, such as the single factor test, Plackett-Burman test, steepest ascent, and response surface methodology experiments, the MB751 fermentation broth was then prepared as a BCA via a cold-air drying process. The BCA and was evaluated in tomato pot experiments for effectiveness in suppressing M. incognita. Significant effects on M. incognita suppression and plant-growth promotion as well as induced systemic resistance to M. incognita of tomato, were observed.

CONCLUSION

The cyclic dipeptide-producing bacterium P. simiae MB751 exhibited high nematicidal activity and performance. Further development of this BCA should be pursued for the management of M. incognita in agriculture. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Responsiveness of Early Response to Dehydration Six-Like Transporter Genes to Water Deficit in Arabidopsis thaliana Leaves

Drought is one of the main abiotic stresses, which affects plant growth, development, and crop yield. Plant response to drought implies carbon allocation to sink organs and sugar partitioning between different cell compartments, and thereby requires the involvement of sugar transporters (SUTs). Among them, the early response to dehydration six-like (ESL), with 19 members in Arabidopsis thaliana, form the largest subfamily of monosaccharide transporters (MSTs) still poorly characterized. A common feature of these genes is their involvement in plant response to abiotic stresses, including water deficit. In this context, we carried out morphological and physiological phenotyping of A. thaliana plants grown under well-watered (WW) and water-deprived (WD) conditions, together with the expression profiling of 17 AtESL genes in rosette leaves. The drought responsiveness of 12 ESL genes, 4 upregulated and 8 downregulated, was correlated to different water statuses of rosette leaves. The differential expression of each of the tandem duplicated AtESL genes in response to water stress is in favor of their plausible functional diversity. Furthermore, transfer DNA (T-DNA) insertional mutants for each of the four upregulated ESLs in response to water deprivation were identified and characterized under WW and WD conditions. To gain insights into global sugar exchanges between vacuole and cytosol under water deficit, the gene expression of other vacuolar SUTs and invertases (AtTMT, AtSUC, AtSWEET, and AtβFRUCT) was analyzed and discussed.

Arabidopsis Restricts Sugar Loss to a Colonizing Trichoderma harzianum Strain by Downregulating SWEET11 and -12 and Upregulation of SUC1 and SWEET2 in the Roots

Phosphate (Pi) availability has a strong influence on the symbiotic interaction between Arabidopsis and a recently described root-colonizing beneficial Trichoderma harzianum strain. When transferred to media with insoluble Ca₃(PO₄)₂ as a sole Pi source, Arabidopsis seedlings died after 10 days. Trichoderma grew on the medium containing Ca₃(PO₄)₂ and the fungus did colonize in roots, stems, and shoots of the host. The efficiency of the photosynthetic electron transport of the colonized seedlings grown on Ca₃(PO₄)₂ medium was reduced and the seedlings died earlier, indicating that the fungus exerts an additional stress to the plant. Interestingly, the fungus initially alleviated the Pi starvation response and did not activate defense responses against the hyphal propagation. However, in colonized roots, the sucrose transporter genes SWEET11 and -12 were strongly down-regulated, restricting the unloading of sucrose from the phloem parenchyma cells to the apoplast. Simultaneously, up-regulation of SUC1 promoted sucrose uptake from the apoplast into the parenchyma cells and of SWEET2 sequestration of sucrose in the vacuole of the root cells. We propose that the fungus tries to escape from the Ca₃(PO₄)₂ medium and colonizes the entire host. To prevent excessive sugar consumption by the propagating hyphae, the host restricts sugar availability in its apoplastic root space by downregulating sugar transporter genes for phloem unloading, and by upregulating transporter genes which maintain the sugar in the root cells.

Early Response to Dehydration Six-Like Transporter Family: Early Origin in Streptophytes and Evolution in Land Plants

Carbon management by plants involves the activity of many sugar transporters, which play roles in sugar subcellular partitioning and reallocation at the whole organism scale. Among these transporters, the early response to dehydration six-like (ESL) monosaccharide transporters (MSTs) are still poorly characterized although they represent one of the largest sugar transporter subfamilies. In this study, we used an evolutionary genomic approach to infer the evolutionary history of this multigenic family. No ESL could be identified in the genomes of rhodophytes, chlorophytes, and the brown algae Ectocarpus siliculosus, whereas one ESL was identified in the genome of Klebsormidium nitens providing evidence for the early emergence of these transporters in Streptophytes. A phylogenetic analysis using the 519 putative ESL proteins identified in the genomes of 47 Embryophyta species and being representative of the plant kingdom has revealed that ESL protein sequences can be divided into three major groups. The first and second groups originated in the common ancestor of all spermaphytes [ζ: 340 million years ago (MYA)] and of angiosperms (ε: 170-235 MYA), respectively, and the third group originated before the divergence of rosids and asterids (γ/1R: 117 MYA). In some eudicots (Vitales, Malpighiales, Myrtales, Sapindales, Brassicales, Malvales, and Solanales), the ESL family presents remarkable expansions of gene copies associated with tandem duplications. The analysis of non-synonymous and synonymous substitutions for the dN/dS ratio of the ESL copies of the genus Arabidopsis has revealed that ESL genes are evolved under a purifying selection even though the progressive increase of dN/dS ratios in the three groups suggests subdiversification phenomena. To further explore the possible acquisition of novel functions by ESL MSTs, we identified the gene structure and promoter cis-acting elements for Arabidopsis thaliana ESL genes. The expression profiling of Arabidopsis ESL unraveled some gene copies that are almost constitutively expressed, whereas other gene copies display organ-preferential expression patterns. This study provides an evolving framework to better understand the roles of ESL transporters in plant development and response to environmental constraints.