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Leverett A, Kromdijk J. The long and tortuous path towards improving photosynthesis by engineering elevated mesophyll conductance. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2024; 47:3411-3427. [PMID: 38804598 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The growing demand for global food production is likely to be a defining issue facing humanity over the next 50 years. To tackle this challenge, there is a desire to bioengineer crops with higher photosynthetic efficiencies, to increase yields. Recently, there has been a growing interest in engineering leaves with higher mesophyll conductance (gm), which would allow CO2 to move more efficiently from the substomatal cavities to the chloroplast stroma. However, if crop yield gains are to be realised through this approach, it is essential that the methodological limitations associated with estimating gm are fully appreciated. In this review, we summarise these limitations, and outline the uncertainties and assumptions that can affect the final estimation of gm. Furthermore, we critically assess the predicted quantitative effect that elevating gm will have on assimilation rates in crop species. We highlight the need for more theoretical modelling to determine whether altering gm is truly a viable route to improve crop performance. Finally, we offer suggestions to guide future research on gm, which will help mitigate the uncertainty inherently associated with estimating this parameter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair Leverett
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Johannes Kromdijk
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Xing H, Chen J, Gong S, Liu S, Xu G, Chen M, Li F, Shi Z. Variation in photosynthetic capacity of Salvia przewalskii along elevational gradients on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2024; 212:108801. [PMID: 38850729 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2024.108801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Elevational variation in plant growing environment drives diversification of photosynthetic capacity, however, the mechanism behind this reaction is poorly understood. We measured leaf gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence, anatomical characteristics, and biochemical traits of Salvia przewalskii at elevations ranging from 2400 m to 3400 m above sea level (a.s.l) on the eastern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China. We found that photosynthetic capacity showed an initial increase and then a decrease with rising elevation, and the best state observed at 2800 m a.s.l. Environmental factors indirectly regulated photosynthetic capacity by affecting stomatal conductance (gs), mesophyll conductance (gm), maximum velocity of carboxylation (Vc max), and maximum capacity for photosynthetic electron transport (Jmax). The average temperature (T) and total precipitation (P) during the growing season had the highest contribution to the variation of photosynthetic capacity of S. przewalskii in subalpine areas, which were 25% and 24%, respectively. Photosynthetic capacity was mainly affected by diffusional limitations (71%-89%), and mesophyll limitation (lm) played a leading role. The variation of gm was attributed to the effects of environmental factors on the volume fraction of intercellular air space (fias), the thickness of cell wall (Tcw), the surface of mesophyll cells and chloroplasts exposed to intercellular airspace (Sm, Sc), and plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIPs, PIP1, PIP2), independent of carbonic anhydrase (CA). Optimization of leaf tissue structure and adaptive physiological responses enabled plants to efficiently cope with variable climate conditions of high-elevation areas, and the while maintaining high levels of carbon assimilation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongshuang Xing
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China
| | - Shanshan Gong
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China
| | - Shun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China; Sichuan Miyaluo Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Lixian, 623100, China
| | - Gexi Xu
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China; Sichuan Miyaluo Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Lixian, 623100, China
| | - Miao Chen
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China
| | - Feifan Li
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China
| | - Zuomin Shi
- Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Environment of National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Ecology and Nature Conservation Institute, Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091, Beijing, China; Sichuan Miyaluo Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, Lixian, 623100, China; Co-Innovation Center for Sustainable Forestry in Southern China, Nanjing Forestry University, 210037, Nanjing, China.
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Wang L, Dang QL. Elevated CO 2 and ammonium nitrogen promoted the plasticity of two maple in great lakes region by adjusting photosynthetic adaptation. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1367535. [PMID: 38654907 PMCID: PMC11035798 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1367535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Introduction Climate change-related CO2 increases and different forms of nitrogen deposition are thought to affect the performance of plants, but their interactions have been poorly studied. Methods This study investigated the responses of photosynthesis and growth in two invasive maple species, amur maple (Acer ginnala Maxim.) and boxelder maple (Acer negundo L.), to elevated CO2 (400 µmol mol-1 (aCO2) vs. 800 µmol mol-1 (eCO2) and different forms of nitrogen fertilization (100% nitrate, 100% ammonium, and an equal mix of the two) with pot experiment under controlled conditions. Results and discussion The results showed that eCO2 significantly promoted photosynthesis, biomass, and stomatal conductance in both species. The biochemical limitation of photosynthesis was switched to RuBP regeneration (related to Jmax) under eCO2 from the Rubisco carboxylation limitation (related to Vcmax) under aCO2. Both species maximized carbon gain by lower specific leaf area and higher N concentration than control treatment, indicating robust morphological plasticity. Ammonium was not conducive to growth under aCO2, but it significantly promoted biomass and photosynthesis under eCO2. When nitrate was the sole nitrogen source, eCO2 significantly reduced N assimilation and growth. The total leaf N per tree was significantly higher in boxelder maple than in amur maple, while the carbon and nitrogen ratio was significantly lower in boxelder maple than in amur maple, suggesting that boxelder maple leaf litter may be more favorable for faster nutrient cycling. The results suggest that increases in ammonium under future elevated CO2 will enhance the plasticity and adaptation of the two maple species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Jiyang College, Zhejiang A&F University, Zhuji, Zhejiang, China
- Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada
| | - Qing-Lai Dang
- Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ON, Canada
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Kang Y, Wu Q, Qin J, Zhong M, Yang X, Chai X. High relative humidity improves leaf burn resistance in flowering Chinese cabbage seedlings cultured in a closed plant factory. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14325. [PMID: 36389408 PMCID: PMC9651049 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant factories that ensure the annual production of vegetable crops have sparked much attention. In the present study, thirty types of common vegetable crops from 25 species and eight families, were grown in a multi-layer hydroponic system in a closed-type plant factory to evaluate the adaptive performance. A total of 20 vegetable crops, belonging to 14 species and 4 families, unexpectedly exhibited different degrees of leaf margin necrosis in lower leaves firstly, then the upper leaves gradually. We defined this new physiological disorder as "leaf burn". It occurred more commonly and severely in cruciferous leafy vegetables. Two different light intensities (150 and 105 µmol m-2 s-1 photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD)), three photoperiod conditions (12, 10 and 8 h d-1) and two canopy relative air humidity (RH) (70% and 90% RH) were set to evaluate the suppression effects on leaf burn occurrence in two commercial flowering Chinese cabbage cultivars ('Sijiu' and 'Chixin'), the special cruciferous vegetable in South China. We discovered that changing light conditions did not fully suppress leaf burn occurrence in the cultivar 'Sijiu', though lower light intensity and shorter photoperiod partly did. Interestingly, the occurrence of leaf burn was completely restrained by an increased canopy RH from 70% to 90%. Specifically, the low RH-treated seedlings occurred varying degree of leaf burn symptoms, along with rapidly decreased water potential in leaves, while the high RH treatment significantly lessened the drop in leaf water potential, together with increased photosynthetic pigment contents, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate, decreased leaf stomatal aperture and density, and thus reduced the incidence of leaf burn in 'Sijiu' and 'Chixin', from 28.89% and 18.52% to zero, respectively. Taken together, high canopy RH may favor maintaining leaf water potential and improving photosynthesis performance, jointly regulating leaf burn incidence and plant growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunyan Kang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Qiaobo Wu
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jinming Qin
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Min Zhong
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xian Yang
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Xirong Chai
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Zhang Y, Xiao Y, Zhang Y, Dong Y, Liu Y, Liu L, Wan S, He J, Yu Y. Accumulation of Galactinol and ABA Is Involved in Exogenous EBR-Induced Drought Tolerance in Tea Plants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:13391-13403. [PMID: 36218024 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c04892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Drought stress severely limits growth and causes losses in the yield of tea plants. Exogenous application of 24-epibrassinolide (EBR) positively regulates drought responses in various plants. However, whether EBR could contribute to drought resistance in tea plants and the underlying mechanisms has not been investigated. Here, we found that EBR application is beneficial for the drought tolerance of tea plants. The transcriptome results revealed that EBR could contribute to tea plant drought resistance by promoting galactinol and abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis gene expression. The content of galactinol was elevated by EBR and EBR-responsive CsDof1.1 positively regulated the expression of the galactinol synthase genes CsGolS2-1 and CsGolS2-2 to contribute to the accumulation of galactinol by directly binding to their promoters. Moreover, exogenous EBR was found to elevate the expression of genes related to ABA signal transduction and stomatal closure regulation, which resulted in the promotion of stomatal closure. In addition, EBR-responsive CsMYC2-2 is involved in ABA accumulation by binding to the promoters CsNCED1 and CsNCED2 to activate their expression. In summary, findings in this study provide knowledge into the transcriptional regulatory mechanism of EBR-induced drought resistance in tea plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongheng Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yezi Xiao
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yingao Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yuan Dong
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yingqing Liu
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Lu Liu
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Siqing Wan
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jingyuan He
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
| | - Youben Yu
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, China
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Knauer J, Cuntz M, Evans JR, Niinemets Ü, Tosens T, Veromann‐Jürgenson L, Werner C, Zaehle S. Contrasting anatomical and biochemical controls on mesophyll conductance across plant functional types. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:357-368. [PMID: 35801854 PMCID: PMC9804998 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Mesophyll conductance (gm ) limits photosynthesis by restricting CO2 diffusion between the substomatal cavities and chloroplasts. Although it is known that gm is determined by both leaf anatomical and biochemical traits, their relative contribution across plant functional types (PFTs) is still unclear. We compiled a dataset of gm measurements and concomitant leaf traits in unstressed plants comprising 563 studies and 617 species from all major PFTs. We investigated to what extent gm limits photosynthesis across PFTs, how gm relates to structural, anatomical, biochemical, and physiological leaf properties, and whether these relationships differ among PFTs. We found that gm imposes a significant limitation to photosynthesis in all C3 PFTs, ranging from 10-30% in most herbaceous annuals to 25-50% in woody evergreens. Anatomical leaf traits explained a significant proportion of the variation in gm (R2 > 0.3) in all PFTs except annual herbs, in which gm is more strongly related to biochemical factors associated with leaf nitrogen and potassium content. Our results underline the need to elucidate mechanisms underlying the global variability of gm . We emphasise the underestimated potential of gm for improving photosynthesis in crops and identify modifications in leaf biochemistry as the most promising pathway for increasing gm in these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Knauer
- Hawkesbury Institute for the EnvironmentWestern Sydney UniversityPenrithNSW2751Australia
- Climate Science CentreCSIRO Oceans and AtmosphereCanberraACT2601Australia
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry07745JenaGermany
| | - Matthias Cuntz
- AgroParisTech, UMR SilvaINRAE, Université de Lorraine54000NancyFrance
| | - John R. Evans
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Translational PhotosynthesisResearch School of BiologyThe Australian National UniversityCanberraACT2601Australia
| | - Ülo Niinemets
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental SciencesEstonian University of Life Sciences51006TartuEstonia
| | - Tiina Tosens
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental SciencesEstonian University of Life Sciences51006TartuEstonia
| | | | | | - Sönke Zaehle
- Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry07745JenaGermany
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Amitrano C, Rouphael Y, De Pascale S, De Micco V. Vapour Pressure Deficit (VPD) Drives the Balance of Hydraulic-Related Anatomical Traits in Lettuce Leaves. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2369. [PMID: 36145772 PMCID: PMC9502365 DOI: 10.3390/plants11182369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The coordination of leaf hydraulic-related traits with leaf size is influenced by environmental conditions and especially by VPD. Water and gas flows are guided by leaf anatomical and physiological traits, whose plasticity is crucial for plants to face environmental changes. Only a few studies have analysed how variations in VPD levels influence stomatal and vein development and their correlation with leaf size, reporting contrasting results. Thus, we applied microscopy techniques to evaluate the effect of low and high VPDs on the development of stomata and veins, also analysing leaf functional traits. We hypothesized that leaves under high VPD with a modified balance between veins and stomata face higher transpiration. We also explored the variability of stomata and vein density across the leaf lamina. From the results, it was evident that under both VPDs, plants maintained a coordinated development of stomata and veins, with a higher density at low VPD. Moreover, more stomata but fewer veins developed in the parts of the lettuce head exposed to light, suggesting that their differentiation during leaf expansion is strictly dependent on the microclimatic conditions. Knowing the plasticity of hydraulic-related morpho-functional traits and its intra-leaf variability is timely for their impact on water and gas fluxes, thus helping to evaluate the impact of environmental-driven anatomical variations on productivity of natural ecosystems and crops, in a climate change scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Amitrano
- Correspondence: (C.A.); (V.D.M.); Tel.: +39-081-2532026 (C.A. & V.D.M.)
| | | | | | - Veronica De Micco
- Correspondence: (C.A.); (V.D.M.); Tel.: +39-081-2532026 (C.A. & V.D.M.)
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8
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Regulating Vapor Pressure Deficit and Soil Moisture Improves Tomato and Cucumber Plant Growth and Water Productivity in the Greenhouse. HORTICULTURAE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae8020147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD) is the driving force that regulates the rate of water transport within plants. Under High VPD (HVPD), plants always reduce their photosynthesis rate and close their stomata. Experiments were performed under greenhouse conditions with cucumber and tomato plants to identify the regulatory effect of VPD on plant water capacity. Treatments included two levels of soil water (100% and 60% field capacity [FC]) combined with two levels of VPD (LVPD and HVPD). Results indicated that with 60%FC, the plant heights of tomato and cucumber were enhanced under LVPD compared with those under HVPD. With 60%FC, relative leaf water contents under LVPD increased by 11% compared with those under HVPD. Furthermore, LVPD significantly improved the photosynthetic capacity of the two crops and changed their stress responses. Our results indicated that LVPD at different soil moisture levels reduced irrigation demand under greenhouse conditions. This approach can be applied in water management in greenhouse vegetable production in China and other regions of the world with temperate continental climates.
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Li S, Hamani AKM, Zhang Y, Liang Y, Gao Y, Duan A. Coordination of leaf hydraulic, anatomical, and economical traits in tomato seedlings acclimation to long-term drought. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 21:536. [PMID: 34781896 PMCID: PMC8591842 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-021-03304-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leaf hydraulic and economics traits are critical for balancing plant water and CO2 exchange, and their relationship has been widely studied. Leaf anatomical traits determine the efficiency of CO2 diffusion within mesophyll structure. However, it remains unclear whether leaf anatomical traits are associated with leaf hydraulic and economics traits acclimation to long-term drought. RESULTS To address this knowledge gap, eight hydraulic traits, including stomatal and venation structures, four economics traits, including leaf dry mass per area (LMA) and the ratio between palisade and spongy mesophyll thickness (PT/ST), and four anatomical traits related to CO2 diffusion were measured in tomato seedlings under the long-term drought conditions. Redundancy analysis indicated that the long-term drought decreased stomatal conductance (gs) mainly due to a synchronized reduction in hydraulic structure such as leaf hydraulic conductance (Kleaf) and major vein width. Simultaneously, stomatal aperture on the adaxial surface and minor vein density (VDminor) also contributed a lot to this reduction. The decreases in mesophyll thickness (Tmes) and chlorophyll surface area exposed to leaf intercellular air spaces (Sc/S) were primarily responsible for the decline of mesophyll conductance (gm) thereby affecting photosynthesis. Drought increased leaf density (LD) thus limited CO2 diffusion. In addition, LMA may not be important in regulating gm in tomato under drought. Principal component analysis revealed that main anatomical traits such as Tmes and Sc/S were positively correlated to Kleaf, VDminor and leaf thickness (LT), while negatively associated with PT/ST. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicated that leaf anatomy plays an important role in maintaining the balance between water supply and CO2 diffusion responses to drought. There was a strong coordination between leaf hydraulic, anatomical, and economical traits in tomato seedlings acclimation to long-term drought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Li
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Abdoul Kader Mounkaila Hamani
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yingying Zhang
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China
| | - Yueping Liang
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China.
| | - Aiwang Duan
- Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xinxiang, Henan, 453002, China.
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Zhang D, Du Q, Sun P, Lou J, Li X, Li Q, Wei M. Physiological and Transcriptomic Analyses Revealed the Implications of Abscisic Acid in Mediating the Rate-Limiting Step for Photosynthetic Carbon Dioxide Utilisation in Response to Vapour Pressure Deficit in Solanum Lycopersicum (Tomato). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:745110. [PMID: 34858453 PMCID: PMC8631768 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.745110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The atmospheric vapour pressure deficit (VPD) has been demonstrated to be a significant environmental factor inducing plant water stress and affecting plant photosynthetic productivity. Despite this, the rate-limiting step for photosynthesis under varying VPD is still unclear. In the present study, tomato plants were cultivated under two contrasting VPD levels: high VPD (3-5 kPa) and low VPD (0.5-1.5 kPa). The effect of long-term acclimation on the short-term rapid VPD response was examined across VPD ranging from 0.5 to 4.5 kPa. Quantitative photosynthetic limitation analysis across the VPD range was performed by combining gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence. The potential role of abscisic acid (ABA) in mediating photosynthetic carbon dioxide (CO2) uptake across a series of VPD was evaluated by physiological and transcriptomic analyses. The rate-limiting step for photosynthetic CO2 utilisation varied with VPD elevation in tomato plants. Under low VPD conditions, stomatal and mesophyll conductance was sufficiently high for CO2 transport. With VPD elevation, plant water stress was gradually pronounced and triggered rapid ABA biosynthesis. The contribution of stomatal and mesophyll limitation to photosynthesis gradually increased with an increase in the VPD. Consequently, the low CO2 availability inside chloroplasts substantially constrained photosynthesis under high VPD conditions. The foliar ABA content was negatively correlated with stomatal and mesophyll conductance for CO2 diffusion. Transcriptomic and physiological analyses revealed that ABA was potentially involved in mediating water transport and photosynthetic CO2 uptake in response to VPD variation. The present study provided new insights into the underlying mechanism of photosynthetic depression under high VPD stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dalong Zhang
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Tai'an, China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Environment Controlled Agricultural Engineering in Huang-Huai-Hai Region, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Qingjie Du
- College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Po Sun
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Jie Lou
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xiaotian Li
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Qingming Li
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Tai'an, China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Environment Controlled Agricultural Engineering in Huang-Huai-Hai Region, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Min Wei
- College of Horticultural Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Tai'an, China
- Scientific Observing and Experimental Station of Environment Controlled Agricultural Engineering in Huang-Huai-Hai Region, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China
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11
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Flexas J, Clemente-Moreno MJ, Bota J, Brodribb TJ, Gago J, Mizokami Y, Nadal M, Perera-Castro AV, Roig-Oliver M, Sugiura D, Xiong D, Carriquí M. Cell wall thickness and composition are involved in photosynthetic limitation. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:3971-3986. [PMID: 33780533 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The key role of cell walls in setting mesophyll conductance to CO2 (gm) and, consequently, photosynthesis is reviewed. First, the theoretical properties of cell walls that can affect gm are presented. Then, we focus on cell wall thickness (Tcw) reviewing empirical evidence showing that Tcw varies strongly among species and phylogenetic groups in a way that correlates with gm and photosynthesis; that is, the thicker the mesophyll cell walls, the lower the gm and photosynthesis. Potential interplays of gm, Tcw, dehydration tolerance, and hydraulic properties of leaves are also discussed. Dynamic variations of Tcw in response to the environment and their implications in the regulation of photosynthesis are discussed, and recent evidence suggesting an influence of cell wall composition on gm is presented. We then propose a hypothetical mechanism for the influence of cell walls on photosynthesis, combining the effects of thickness and composition, particularly pectins. Finally, we discuss the prospects for using biotechnology for enhancing photosynthesis by altering cell wall-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Flexas
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - María J Clemente-Moreno
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Josefina Bota
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Tim J Brodribb
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Jorge Gago
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Yusuke Mizokami
- Laboratory of Applied Ecology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, 1432-1 Horinouchi, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Miquel Nadal
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Alicia V Perera-Castro
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Margalida Roig-Oliver
- Research Group on Plant Biology under Mediterranean Conditions, Institut d'Investigacions Agroambientals i d'Economia de l'Aigua (INAGEA) - Universitat de les Illes Balears (UIB), Ctra Valldemossa Km 7.5., 07122, Palma, Illes Balears, Spain
| | - Daisuke Sugiura
- Laboratory of Crop Science, Department of Plant Production Sciences, Graduate School of Bioagricultural Sciences, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Dongliang Xiong
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, MOA Key Laboratory of Crop Ecophysiology and Farming System in the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River, College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Marc Carriquí
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
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12
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Li S, Liu J, Liu H, Qiu R, Gao Y, Duan A. Role of Hydraulic Signal and ABA in Decrease of Leaf Stomatal and Mesophyll Conductance in Soil Drought-Stressed Tomato. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:653186. [PMID: 33995449 PMCID: PMC8118518 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.653186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Drought reduces leaf stomatal conductance (gs) and mesophyll conductance (gm). Both hydraulic signals and chemical signals (mainly abscisic acid, ABA) are involved in regulating gs. However, it remains unclear what role the endogenous ABA plays in gm under decreasing soil moisture. In this study, the responses of gs and gm to ABA were investigated under progressive soil drying conditions and their impacts on net photosynthesis (An) and intrinsic water use efficiency (WUEi) were also analyzed. Experimental tomato plants were cultivated in pots in an environment-controlled greenhouse. Reductions of gs and gm induced a 68-78% decline of An under drought conditions. While soil water potential (Ψsoil) was over -1.01 MPa, gs reduced as leaf water potential (Ψleaf) decreased, but ABA and gm kept unchanged, which indicating gs was more sensitive to drought than gm. During Ψsoil reduction from -1.01 to -1.44 MPa, Ψleaf still kept decreasing, and both gs and gm decreased concurrently following to the sustained increases of ABA content in shoot sap. The gm was positively correlated to gs during a drying process. Compared to gs or gm, WUEi was strongly correlated with gm/gs. WUEi improved within Ψsoil range between -0.83 and -1.15 MPa. In summary, gs showed a higher sensitivity to drought than gm. Under moderate and severe drought at Ψsoil ≤ -1.01 MPa, furthermore from hydraulic signals, ABA was also involved in this co-ordination reductions of gs and gm and thereby regulated An and WUEi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Li
- Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Junming Liu
- Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang, China
- Graduate School of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang, China
| | - Rangjian Qiu
- School of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang, China
| | - Aiwang Duan
- Key Laboratory of Crop Water Use and Regulation, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Farmland Irrigation Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xinxiang, China
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13
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Modulating Vapor Pressure Deficit in the Plant Micro-Environment May Enhance the Bioactive Value of Lettuce. HORTICULTURAE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/horticulturae7020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Growing demand for horticultural products of accentuated sensory, nutritional, and functional quality traits has been driven by the turn observed in affluent societies toward a healthy and sustainable lifestyle relying principally on plant-based food. Growing plants under protected cultivation facilitates more precise and efficient modulation of the plant microenvironment, which is essential for improving vegetable quality. Among the environmental parameters that have been researched for optimization over the past, air relative humidity has always been in the background and it is still unclear if and how it can be modulated to improve plants’ quality. In this respect, two differentially pigmented (green and red) Salanova® cultivars (Lactuca sativa L. var. capitata) were grown under two different Vapor Pressure Deficits (VPDs; 0.69 and 1.76 kPa) in a controlled environment chamber in order to appraise possible changes in mineral and phytochemical composition and in antioxidant capacity. Growth and morpho-physiological parameters were also analyzed to better understand lettuce development and acclimation mechanisms under these two VPD regimes. Results showed that even though Salanova plants grown at low VPD (0.69 kPa) increased their biomass, area, number of leaves and enhanced Fv/Fm ratio, plants at high VPD increased the levels of phytochemicals, especially in the red cultivar. Based on these results, we have discussed the role of high VPD facilitated by controlled environment agriculture as a mild stress aimed to enhance the quality of leafy greens.
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14
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Song X, Bai P, Ding J, Li J. Effect of vapor pressure deficit on growth and water status in muskmelon and cucumber. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 303:110755. [PMID: 33487342 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2020.110755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Climatic warming and water shortages have become global environmental issues affecting agricultural production. The change of morphology and anatomical structures in plant organs can greatly affect plant growth. The study combined temperature and relative humidity to regulate vapor pressure deficit (VPD) to form low and high VPD environments (LVPD and HVPD, respectively) in two climate-controlled greenhouses. The effects of different VPD conditions on gas exchange parameters, dry matter, and leaf and stem anatomical structure parameters of muskmelon and cucumber were compared and studied. The results show that the background VPD conditions give different internal structure of muskmelon and cucumber, therefore it can improve the transport capacity of water to the leaf surface under LVPD conditions. At the same time, the stomatal closure induced by atmospheric drought stress is avoided and the gas exchange capacity of the leaf stomata is enhanced, thereby maintaining high photosynthetic rate. Thus, reducing VPD is the key to achieving high yield and productivity in greenhouse muskmelon and cucumber production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoming Song
- College of Horticulture, Northwest Agriculture & Forest University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Ping Bai
- College of Horticulture, Northwest Agriculture & Forest University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Juping Ding
- College of Horticulture, Northwest Agriculture & Forest University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
| | - Jianming Li
- College of Horticulture, Northwest Agriculture & Forest University, Yangling, 712100, Shaanxi, China.
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15
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Amitrano C, Arena C, De Pascale S, De Micco V. Light and Low Relative Humidity Increase Antioxidants Content in Mung Bean ( Vigna radiata L.) Sprouts. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E1093. [PMID: 32854438 PMCID: PMC7570258 DOI: 10.3390/plants9091093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
In the last decades, there has been a growing interest in the production of sprouts, since they are a highly nutritious food, particularly suitable for indoor farming in urban areas. Achieving sprout production in indoor systems requires an understanding of possible alterations induced by the microclimate. The aim of this study was to analyze the combined effect of presence/absence of light and high/low air relative humidity (RH) on mung bean sprouts. Morpho-anatomical development and functional anatomical traits in hypocotyl were quantified. The content of antioxidants, soluble sugars, and starch were measured for nutritional and functional purposes. Different RH regimes mainly induced morpho-anatomical modifications, while the presence/absence of light changed the content of antioxidant compounds. Increments in stele diameter at high RH suggest a higher water uptake and conductivity, compared to the low RH treatment; low RH and light induced anatomical traits improving plant water transport (reduced number of cortical layers) and increased the production of antioxidants. The overall results suggested that RH and light, already at the early stages of development, affect the plant's nutritional value. Therefore, the combination of light and low RH allows the production of antioxidant-rich mung bean sprouts to be used as a food supplement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Amitrano
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Naples, Italy; (C.A.); (S.D.P.)
| | - Carmen Arena
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Stefania De Pascale
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Naples, Italy; (C.A.); (S.D.P.)
| | - Veronica De Micco
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Naples, Italy; (C.A.); (S.D.P.)
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16
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Du Q, Jiao X, Song X, Zhang J, Bai P, Ding J, Li J. The Response of Water Dynamics to Long-Term High Vapor Pressure Deficit Is Mediated by Anatomical Adaptations in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:758. [PMID: 32582267 PMCID: PMC7289962 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Vapor pressure deficit (VPD) is the driver of water movement in plants. However, little is known about how anatomical adaptations determine the acclimation of plant water dynamics to elevated VPD, especially at the whole plant level. Here, we examined the responses of transpiration, stomatal conductance (gs), hydraulic partitioning, and anatomical traits in two tomato cultivars (Jinpeng and Zhongza) to long-term high (2.2-2.6 kPa) and low (1.1-1.5 kPa) VPD. Compared to plants growing under low VPD, no variation in gs was found for Jinpeng under high VPD conditions; however, high VPD induced an increase in whole plant hydraulic conductance (Kplant), which was responsible for the maintenance of high transpiration. In contrast, transpiration was not influenced by high VPD in Zhongza, which was primarily attributed to a coordinated decline in gs and Kplant. The changes in gs were closely related to stomatal density and size. Furthermore, high VPD altered hydraulic partitioning among the leaf, stem, and root for both cultivars via adjustments in anatomy. The increase in lumen area of vessels in veins and large roots in Jinpeng under high VPD conditions improved water transport efficiency in the leaf and root, thus resulting in a high Kplant. However, the decreased Kplant for Zhongza under high VPD was the result of a decline of water transport efficiency in the leaf that was caused by a reduction in vein density. Overall, we concluded that the tradeoff in anatomical acclimations among plant tissues results in different water relations in plants under high VPD conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingjie Du
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
- College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xiaocong Jiao
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Xiaoming Song
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jiayu Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Ping Bai
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Juping Ding
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | - Jianming Li
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
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17
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Amitrano C, Chirico GB, De Pascale S, Rouphael Y, De Micco V. Crop Management in Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) Systems Using Predictive Mathematical Models. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 20:E3110. [PMID: 32486394 PMCID: PMC7308940 DOI: 10.3390/s20113110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Proximal sensors in controlled environment agriculture (CEA) are used to monitor plant growth, yield, and water consumption with non-destructive technologies. Rapid and continuous monitoring of environmental and crop parameters may be used to develop mathematical models to predict crop response to microclimatic changes. Here, we applied the energy cascade model (MEC) on green- and red-leaf butterhead lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. capitata). We tooled up the model to describe the changing leaf functional efficiency during the growing period. We validated the model on an independent dataset with two different vapor pressure deficit (VPD) levels, corresponding to nominal (low VPD) and off-nominal (high VPD) conditions. Under low VPD, the modified model accurately predicted the transpiration rate (RMSE = 0.10 Lm-2), edible biomass (RMSE = 6.87 g m-2), net-photosynthesis (rBIAS = 34%), and stomatal conductance (rBIAS = 39%). Under high VPD, the model overestimated photosynthesis and stomatal conductance (rBIAS = 76-68%). This inconsistency is likely due to the empirical nature of the original model, which was designed for nominal conditions. Here, applications of the modified model are discussed, and possible improvements are suggested based on plant morpho-physiological changes occurring in sub-optimal scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Giovanni Battista Chirico
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy; (C.A.); (S.D.P.); (Y.R.)
| | | | | | - Veronica De Micco
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80055 Portici, Italy; (C.A.); (S.D.P.); (Y.R.)
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18
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Kohli A, Miro B, Balié J, d’A Hughes J. Photosynthesis research: a model to bridge fundamental science, translational products, and socio-economic considerations in agriculture. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2020; 71:2281-2298. [PMID: 32076700 PMCID: PMC7135011 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Despite impressive success in molecular physiological understanding of photosynthesis, and preliminary evidence on its potential for quantum shifts in agricultural productivity, the question remains of whether increased photosynthesis, without parallel fine-tuning of the associated processes, is enough. There is a distinct lack of formal socio-economic impact studies that address the critical questions of product profiling, cost-benefit analysis, environmental trade-offs, and technological and market forces in product acceptability. When a relatively well understood process gains enough traction for translational value, its broader scientific and technical gap assessment, in conjunction with its socio-economic impact assessment for success, should be a prerequisite. The successes in the upstream basic understanding of photosynthesis should be integrated with a gap analysis for downstream translational applications to impact the farmers' and customers' lifestyles and livelihoods. The purpose of this review is to assess how the laboratory, the field, and the societal demands from photosynthesis could generate a transformative product. Two crucial recommendations from the analysis of the state of knowledge and potential ways forward are (i) the formulation of integrative mega-projects, which span the multistakeholder spectrum, to ensure rapid success in harnessing the transformative power of photosynthesis; and (ii) stipulating spatiotemporal, labour, and economic criteria to stage-gate deliverables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Kohli
- International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Berta Miro
- International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
| | - Jean Balié
- International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
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