1
|
Kim HJ, Kim YH. Molecular Frontiers in Melanoma: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapeutic Advances. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2984. [PMID: 38474231 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Melanoma, a highly aggressive skin cancer, is characterized by rapid progression and high mortality. Recent advances in molecular pathogenesis have shed light on genetic and epigenetic changes that drive melanoma development. This review provides an overview of these developments, focusing on molecular mechanisms in melanoma genesis. It highlights how mutations, particularly in the BRAF, NRAS, c-KIT, and GNAQ/GNA11 genes, affect critical signaling pathways. The evolution of diagnostic techniques, such as genomics, transcriptomics, liquid biopsies, and molecular biomarkers for early detection and prognosis, is also discussed. The therapeutic landscape has transformed with targeted therapies and immunotherapies, improving patient outcomes. This paper examines the efficacy, challenges, and prospects of these treatments, including recent clinical trials and emerging strategies. The potential of novel treatment strategies, including neoantigen vaccines, adoptive cell transfer, microbiome interactions, and nanoparticle-based combination therapy, is explored. These advances emphasize the challenges of therapy resistance and the importance of personalized medicine. This review underlines the necessity for evidence-based therapy selection in managing the increasing global incidence of melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Jee Kim
- Department of Dermatology, International St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, Catholic Kwandong University, Incheon 22711, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong Ho Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Slominski RM, Sarna T, Płonka PM, Raman C, Brożyna AA, Slominski AT. Melanoma, Melanin, and Melanogenesis: The Yin and Yang Relationship. Front Oncol 2022; 12:842496. [PMID: 35359389 PMCID: PMC8963986 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2022.842496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanin pigment plays a critical role in the protection against the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation and other environmental stressors. It is produced by the enzymatic transformation of L-tyrosine to dopaquinone and subsequent chemical and biochemical reactions resulting in the formation of various 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid (DHICA) and 5,6-dihydroxyindole (DHI) oligomers-main constituents of eumelanin, and benzothiazine and benzothiazole units of pheomelanin. The biosynthesis of melanin is regulated by sun exposure and by many hormonal factors at the tissue, cellular, and subcellular levels. While the presence of melanin protects against the development of skin cancers including cutaneous melanoma, its presence may be necessary for the malignant transformation of melanocytes. This shows a complex role of melanogenesis in melanoma development defined by chemical properties of melanin and the nature of generating pathways such as eu- and pheomelanogenesis. While eumelanin is believed to provide radioprotection and photoprotection by acting as an efficient antioxidant and sunscreen, pheomelanin, being less photostable, can generate mutagenic environment after exposure to the short-wavelength UVR. Melanogenesis by itself and its highly reactive intermediates show cytotoxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic activities, and it can stimulate glycolysis and hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) activation, which, combined with their immunosuppressive effects, can lead to melanoma progression and resistance to immunotherapy. On the other hand, melanogenesis-related proteins can be a target for immunotherapy. Interestingly, clinicopathological analyses on advanced melanomas have shown a negative correlation between tumor pigmentation and diseases outcome as defined by overall survival and disease-free time. This indicates a "Yin and Yang" role for melanin and active melanogenesis in melanoma development, progression, and therapy. Furthermore, based on the clinical, experimental data and diverse effects of melanogenesis, we propose that inhibition of melanogenesis in advanced melanotic melanoma represents a realistic adjuvant strategy to enhance immuno-, radio-, and chemotherapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radomir M Slominski
- Graduate Biomedical Sciences Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Przemysław M Płonka
- Department of Biophysics and Cancer Biology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Chander Raman
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Anna A Brożyna
- Department of Human Biology, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Biological and Veterinary Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Toruń, Poland
| | - Andrzej T Slominski
- Department of Dermatology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,Pathology Laboratory Service, Veteran Administration Medical Center at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Prinith NS, Manjunatha JG, Hareesha N. Electrochemical validation of L-tyrosine with dopamine using composite surfactant modified carbon nanotube electrode. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-021-02283-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
4
|
de Cássia Ribeiro Gonçalves R, Rezende Kitagawa R, Aparecida Varanda E, Stella Gonçalves Raddi M, Andrea Leite C, Regina Pombeiro Sponchiado S. Effect of biotransformation by liver S9 enzymes on the mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of melanin extracted from Aspergillus nidulans. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2015; 54:1014-21. [PMID: 26459656 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2015.1091846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Revised: 07/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT A mutant that exhibited increased melanin pigment production was isolated from Aspergillus nidulans fungus. This pigment has aroused biotechnological interest due to its photoprotector and antioxidant properties. In a recent study, we showed that melanin from A. nidulans also inhibits NO and TNF-α production. OBJECTIVE The present study evaluates the mutagenicity and cytotoxicity of melanin extracted from A. nidulans after its exposure to liver S9 enzymes. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cytotoxicity of multiple concentrations of melanin (31.2-500 μg/mL) against the McCoy cell line was evaluated using the Neutral Red assay, after incubation for 24 h. Mutagenicity was assessed using the Ames test with the Salmonella typhimurium strains TA98, TA97a, TA100, and TA102 at concentrations ranging from 125 μg/plate to 1 mg/plate after incubation for 48 h. RESULTS The cytotoxicity of A. nidulans melanin after incubation with S9 enzymes was less than (CI50 value= 413.4 ± 3.1 μg/mL) that of other toxins, such as cyclophosphamide (CI50 value = 15 ± 1.2 μg/mL), suggesting that even the metabolised pigment does not cause significant damage to cellular components at concentrations up to 100 μg/mL. In addition, melanin did not exhibit mutagenic properties against the TA 97a, TA 98, TA 100, or TA 102 strains of S. typhimurium, as shown by a mutagenic index (MI) <2 in all assays. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The significance of these results supports the use of melanin as a therapeutic reagent because it possesses low cytotoxicity and mutagenic potential, even when processed through an external metabolising system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Rodrigo Rezende Kitagawa
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Espirito Santo Federal University - UFES , Vitoria , Brazil
| | - Eliana Aparecida Varanda
- b Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences , São Paulo State University - UNESP , Araraquara , Brazil , and
| | | | - Carla Andrea Leite
- c Department of Biochemistry and Technology Chemistry , Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University - UNESP , Araraquara , Brazil
| | - Sandra Regina Pombeiro Sponchiado
- c Department of Biochemistry and Technology Chemistry , Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University - UNESP , Araraquara , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Reduced FANCD2 influences spontaneous SCE and RAD51 foci formation in uveal melanoma and Fanconi anaemia. Oncogene 2013; 32:5338-46. [PMID: 23318456 PMCID: PMC3898318 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2012.627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Uveal melanoma (UM) is unique among cancers in displaying reduced endogenous levels of sister chromatid exchange (SCE). Here we demonstrate that FANCD2 expression is reduced in UM and that ectopic expression of FANCD2 increased SCE. Similarly, FANCD2-deficient fibroblasts (PD20) derived from Fanconi anaemia patients displayed reduced spontaneous SCE formation relative to their FANCD2-complemented counterparts, suggesting that this observation is not specific to UM. In addition, spontaneous RAD51 foci were reduced in UM and PD20 cells compared with FANCD2-proficient cells. This is consistent with a model where spontaneous SCEs are the end product of endogenous recombination events and implicates FANCD2 in the promotion of recombination-mediated repair of endogenous DNA damage and in SCE formation during normal DNA replication. In both UM and PD20 cells, low SCE was reversed by inhibiting DNA-PKcs (DNA-dependent protein kinase, catalytic subunit). Finally, we demonstrate that both PD20 and UM are sensitive to acetaldehyde, supporting a role for FANCD2 in repair of lesions induced by such endogenous metabolites. Together, these data suggest FANCD2 may promote spontaneous SCE by influencing which double-strand break repair pathway predominates during normal S-phase progression.
Collapse
|
6
|
Hoh L, Gravells P, Canovas D, Ul-Hassan A, Rennie IG, Bryant H, Sisley K. Atypically low spontaneous sister chromatid exchange formation in uveal melanoma. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 2011; 50:34-42. [PMID: 20960562 DOI: 10.1002/gcc.20829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary intraocular cancer of adults and is characterized by several well-established chromosomal changes. More recently, a specific mutation of guanine nucleotide binding protein Gq alpha subunit (GNAQ) has also been identified in a proportion of UM. Although some of these alterations have been suggested to be early changes, the genetic alterations responsible for the development of UM have yet to be clearly determined. Cancers are characterized by increased genetic instability, and analysis of established cancer cell lines and blood from cancer patients has universally been associated with an increased level of sister chromatid exchange (SCE). We have observed that the spontaneous frequency of SCE in primary cultures of UM and UM-derived cell lines is decreased below normal baseline levels, a phenomenon unique to UM when compared with multiple other cancers. This finding was specific to the tumor and not found in lymphocytes from the patients. Although we cannot exclude the possibility that low SCE (LSCE) is peculiar to the uveal melanocytes lineage, as it was consistently observed in all UM studied, regardless of other genetic defects, we propose that this phenomenon contributes to the molecular pathogenesis of UM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leslie Hoh
- Academic Unit of Ophthalmology and Orthoptics, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2RX, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Marrot L, Belaïdi JP, Jones C, Perez P, Meunler JR. Molecular Responses to Stress Induced in Normal Human Caucasian Melanocytes in Culture by Exposure to Simulated Solar UV¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2005.tb00196.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
8
|
Marrot L, Belaïdi JP, Jones C, Perez P, Meunier JR. Molecular Responses to Stress Induced in Normal Human Caucasian Melanocytes in Culture by Exposure to Simulated Solar UV¶. Photochem Photobiol 2005. [DOI: 10.1562/2004-10-13-ra-343.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
9
|
Abstract
In this study, chromosomal damage induced in vitro by lead acetate in human melanoma cells (B-Mel) was evaluated using the cytokinesis-blocked micronucleus assay and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) analysis. Lead acetate (10-6, 10-5 and 10-3 mM) induced micronuclei and SCE formation in a dose-dependent manner. Treated cells showed a decrease in cell viability but not concomitant cell death by apoptosis (lead acetate failed to induce internucleosomal DNA fragmentation at any of the doses tested). One important observation emerging from this study was that low-level lead exposure in vitro is able to induce significant cytogenetic damage in human melanoma cells, indicating an increased sensitivity of B-Mel cells to lead acetate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Poma
- Department of Basic and Applied Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Italy. poma@univaq@it
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Slominski A, Wortsman J, Carlson AJ, Matsuoka LY, Balch CM, Mihm MC. Malignant melanoma. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2001; 125:1295-306. [PMID: 11570904 DOI: 10.5858/2001-125-1295-mm] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT The rapidly developing fields of melanoma research are revolutionizing the current concepts on melanoma etiology and pathogenesis and are introducing newer diagnostic techniques and potential therapeutic approaches. OBJECTIVES To present the most current concepts on the etiology and pathogenesis of melanoma and to introduce the recent diagnostic techniques and the potential therapeutic approaches. METHODS Data sources were reports on melanoma published in the English language literature and observations made using specimens available at Harvard University, Johns Hopkins Medical Center, Albany Medical College, Loyola University Medical Center, and University of Tennessee Health Science Center. RESULTS Studies on melanoma containing chromosomal or genetic evaluation were selected for further analysis. Current clinical and pathologic categories with the reported genetic abnormalities were related to the latest information on pigment biology. The data extracted were used to develop a conceptual framework on the pathogenesis of melanoma; the generated model was then evaluated and used to suggest potential therapeutic approaches. CONCLUSIONS (1) Melanoma is not genetically homogeneous, and the existing differences between the pathologic categories, particularly in areas such as type of growth phase (radial vs vertical growth), total vertical dimension, ulceration of primary tumor, and metastatic process, have profound prognostic and therapeutic implications. (2) Chromosomal aberrations and gene mutations are found in sporadic and familial melanomas; among the most important are those affecting the 9p21, which contains the p16 locus, a site known to be critical for normal progression of the cell cycle. Aberrant p16 expression is associated with more aggressive behavior. (3) Melanoma cells possess a remarkable repertoire of biosynthetic capacities represented by the production of hormones, growth factors, and their receptors that may sustain and accelerate tumor development and progression. For example, expression of the tumoral products alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone and adrenocorticotropic hormone is regulated in vitro by ultraviolet light, a known carcinogen. (4) Melanomas differ from other tumors in their intrinsic capability to express melanogenic enzymes with the corresponding structural proteins to actually synthesize melanin. Melanogenesis-related proteins are rapidly entering the clinical arena, being used not only as diagnostic markers, but also as potential targets for melanoma therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Slominski
- Department of Pathology, University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, Memphis 38163, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Poma A, Bianchini S, Miranda M. Inhibition of L-tyrosine-induced micronuclei production by phenylthiourea in human melanoma cells. Mutat Res 1999; 446:143-8. [PMID: 10635335 DOI: 10.1016/s1383-5718(99)00142-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
It was previously found that L-tyrosine oxidation product(s) are cytotoxic, genotoxic and increase the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) levels in human melanoma cells. In this work, the micronucleus assay has been performed on human melanotic and amelanotic melanoma cell lines (Carl-1 MEL and AMEL) in the presence of 1.0, 0.5 and 0.1 mM L-tyrosine concentrations to investigate if melanin synthesis intermediate(s) increase micronuclei production. L-Tyrosine oxidation product(s) increased the frequency of micronuclei in melanoma cells; 0.1 mM phenylthiourea (PTU), an inhibitor of L-tyrosine oxidation by tyrosinase, lowered the micronucleus production to the control levels. The culture of melanoma cells with high L-tyrosine in the culture medium resulted in a positive response to an ELISA-based apoptotic test. For comparison the effect of L-tyrosine on micronuclei production in human amelanotic melanoma cells was also investigated; the micronucleus production in the presence of 1 mM L-tyrosine in the culture medium was lower than that found with melanotic melanoma cells of the same cell line. The data suggest that melanin synthesis intermediates arising from L-tyrosine oxidation may cause micronuclei production in Carl-1 human melanoma cells; the addition of PTU in the presence of L-tyrosine decreased the frequency of micronuclei to about the control values thus the inhibition of melanogenesis may have some clinical implication in melanotic melanoma.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A Poma
- Department of Basic and Applied Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of L'Aquila, Italy.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Albanesi T, Polani S, Cozzi R, Perticone P. DNA strand methylation and sister chromatid exchanges in mammalian cells in vitro. Mutat Res 1999; 429:239-48. [PMID: 10526208 DOI: 10.1016/s0027-5107(99)00112-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Among other targets, DNA demethylating agents are known to affect the sister chromatid exchange (SCE) frequency in mammalian cells in vitro. The SCE increase appears to be maintained for many (10-16) cell cycles after the end of the pulse in a given cell population, unlike SCEs induced by DNA damaging agents. Yet, epigenetic changes (such as demethylation) would not be expected to affect SCE at all. In the present report we challenge the working hypothesis of a relation between SCEs and demethylation by comparing SCE induction during different rounds of replication when the parental strands were normally methylated or demethylated. Azacytidine (AZA), ethionine (ETH), mitomycin-C (MMC), UV-irradiation (UV) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) were tested for SCE induction in a Chinese hamster ovary cell line after a single pulse, one or two cell cycles before fixation. Whereas MMC, UV and H(2)O(2) induce SCE in both protocols, AZA and ETH show an effect on SCEs only if administered two cycles before fixation. Because two cell cycles are needed in order to achieve demethylation of the parental DNA strand, the data reported here support our working hypothesis that demethylation in the parental DNA strand, at the level of the replication fork (i.e., the region where SCEs are formed), is responsible for an increase in mistaken ligations of processed damage, eventually yielding an increase in SCEs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Albanesi
- Centro di Genetica Evoluzionistica del CNR, c/o Dipartimento di Genetica e Biologia Molecolare, Università La Sapienza, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wenczl E, Van der Schans GP, Roza L, Kolb RM, Timmerman AJ, Smit NP, Pavel S, Schothorst AA. (Pheo)melanin photosensitizes UVA-induced DNA damage in cultured human melanocytes. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111:678-82. [PMID: 9764853 DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00357.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The question of whether melanins are photoprotecting and/or photosensitizing in human skin cells continues to be debated. To evaluate the role of melanin upon UVA irradiation, DNA single-strand breaks (ssb) were measured in human melanocytes differing only in the amount of pigment produced by culturing at two different concentrations, basic (0.01 mM) or high (0.2 mM), of L-tyrosine, the main precursor of melanin. In parallel, pheo- and total melanin contents of the cells were determined. Identical experiments were performed with two melanocyte cultures derived from a skin type I and a skin type VI individual. For the first time the correlation between UVA-induced genotoxicity and pheo-/total melanin content has been investigated. We observed that cultured in basic medium, the skin type VI melanocytes contained 10 times more total melanin and about seven times more pheomelanin than the skin type I melanocytes. Elevation of tyrosine level in the culture medium resulted in an increase of both pheo- and total melanin levels in both melanocyte cultures; however, the melanin composition of skin type I melanocytes became more pheomelanogenic, whereas that of skin type VI melanocytes remained the same. The skin type VI melanocytes cultured in basic medium demonstrated a very high sensitivity (1.18 ssb per 10(10) Da per kJ per m2) toward UVA that is probably related to their high pheo- and total melanin content. Their UVA sensitivity, however, did not change after increasing their melanin content by culturing at high tyrosine concentration. In contrast, the skin type I melanocytes demonstrated a low sensitivity (0.04 ssb per 10(10) Da per kJ per m2) toward UVA when cultured in basic medium, but increasing their melanin content resulted in a 3-fold increase in their UVA sensitivity (0.13 ssb per 10(10) Da per kJ per m2). These results demonstrate that UVA-irradiated cultured human melanocytes are photosensitized by their own synthesized chromophores, most likely pheomelanin and/or melanin intermediates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Wenczl
- Department of Dermatology, Kun Street Hospital, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|