N-deacetylation of Sinorhizobium meliloti Nod factors increases their stability in the Medicago sativa rhizosphere and decreases their biological activity

A review-chitosan nanoparticles towards enhancing nutrient use efficiency in crops

Global economy relies on agriculture and hence poor nutrient use efficiency of conventional fertilization is not only a problem for the farmers but also for the researchers. Chitin, the natural biopolymer of the world, next to cellulose, on deacetylation yields chitosan, which has potential uses in diverse domains of agricultural sector, including wastewater treatment, pest and disease resistance and in smart nutrient delivery. Chitosan nanomaterials serve as the available nutrient source of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus to plants. It is biocompatible, biodegradable and ecofriendly and hence has no toxic effects on soil and crops. Chitosan with nanoparticles is used as a controlled release fertilizer thereby reducing the application of chemical fertilizers. Chitosan nanoparticles act as a carrier for delivery of ions slowly when required by the crops due to which the nutrient content in many crops gets increased. They aid in enhanced nutrient uptake by triggering the activity of microorganisms and enzymes like alkaline phosphatase, thereby enhancing the availability of nutrients. The nodulation (NOD) gene responsible for rhizobium activity is triggered which plays a major role in nitrogen fixation in legumes. The safety of using chitosan nanoparticles and the economic feasibility has also been addressed in this review. This review explores the potential use of chitosan nanoparticles as nutrient carrier.

Nod factor perception: an integrative view of molecular communication during legume symbiosis

Compatible interaction between rhizobial Nod factors and host receptors enables initial recognition and signaling events during legume-rhizobia symbiosis. Molecular communication is a new paradigm of information relay, which uses chemical signals or molecules as dialogues for communication and has been witnessed in prokaryotes, plants as well as in animal kingdom. Understanding this fascinating relay of signals between plants and rhizobia during the establishment of a synergistic relationship for biological nitrogen fixation represents one of the hotspots in plant biology research. Predominantly, their interaction is initiated by flavonoids exuding from plant roots, which provokes changes in the expression profile of rhizobial genes. Compatible interactions promote the secretion of Nod factors (NFs) from rhizobia, which are recognised by cognate host receptors. Perception of NFs by host receptors initiates the symbiosis and ultimately leads to the accommodation of rhizobia within root nodules via a series of mutual exchange of signals. This review elucidates the bacterial and plant perspectives during the early stages of symbiosis, explicitly emphasizing the significance of NFs and their cognate NF receptors.

A plant chitinase controls cortical infection thread progression and nitrogen-fixing symbiosis

Morphogens provide positional information and their concentration is key to the organized development of multicellular organisms. Nitrogen-fixing root nodules are unique organs induced by Nod factor-producing bacteria. Localized production of Nod factors establishes a developmental field within the root where plant cells are reprogrammed to form infection threads and primordia. We found that regulation of Nod factor levels by Lotus japonicus is required for the formation of nitrogen-fixing organs, determining the fate of this induced developmental program. Our analysis of plant and bacterial mutants shows that a host chitinase modulates Nod factor levels possibly in a structure-dependent manner. In Lotus, this is required for maintaining Nod factor signalling in parallel with the elongation of infection threads within the nodule cortex, while root hair infection and primordia formation are not influenced. Our study shows that infected nodules require balanced levels of Nod factors for completing their transition to functional, nitrogen-fixing organs.

Host- and stage-dependent secretome of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Rhizophagus irregularis

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi form the most wide-spread endosymbiosis with plants. There is very little host specificity in this interaction, however host preferences as well as varying symbiotic efficiencies have been observed. We hypothesize that secreted proteins (SPs) may act as fungal effectors to control symbiotic efficiency in a host-dependent manner. Therefore, we studied whether arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi adjust their secretome in a host- and stage-dependent manner to contribute to their extremely wide host range. We investigated the expression of SP-encoding genes of Rhizophagus irregularis in three evolutionary distantly related plant species, Medicago truncatula, Nicotiana benthamiana and Allium schoenoprasum. In addition we used laser microdissection in combination with RNA-seq to study SP expression at different stages of the interaction in Medicago. Our data indicate that most expressed SPs show roughly equal expression levels in the interaction with all three host plants. In addition, a subset shows significant differential expression depending on the host plant. Furthermore, SP expression is controlled locally in the hyphal network in response to host-dependent cues. Overall, this study presents a comprehensive analysis of the R. irregularis secretome, which now offers a solid basis to direct functional studies on the role of fungal SPs in AM symbiosis.

Lipochitooligosaccharide recognition: an ancient story

Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature, found in crustacean shells, insect exoskeletons and fungal cell walls. The action of chitin and chitin derivatives on plants has become a very interesting story of late. Chitin is a b1-4-linked polymer of N-acetyl-Dglucosamine(GlcNAc). In this unmodified form, chitooligosaccharides (degree of polymerization(dp) = 6–8)) are strong inducers of plant innate immunity. By contrast, when these chitooligosaccharides are acylated (so-called lipochitooligosaccharides, LCOs) and further modified, they can act as Nod factors, the key signaling molecules that play an important role in the initiation of the legume–rhizobium symbiosis. In a similar form, these molecules can also act as Myc factors, the key signaling molecules involved in the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)symbiosis. It has been proposed that Nod factor perception might have evolved from the more ancient AM symbiosis. Increasing evidence now suggests that LCO perception might have evolved from plant innate immunity signaling. In this review, we will discuss the evolutionary origin of symbiotic LCO recognition.

A eulogy to Adam Kondorosi

A tribute to Adam Kondorosi, a pioneer in the field of nitrogen fixation and bacterial-plant symbiosis, Former director of the Institut des Sciences Végétales (France), member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Europe, and the European Molecular Biology Organization.

The lysin motif receptor-like kinase (LysM-RLK) CERK1 is a major chitin-binding protein in Arabidopsis thaliana and subject to chitin-induced phosphorylation

Plants detect potential pathogens by sensing microbe-associated molecular patterns via pattern recognition receptors. In the dicot model plant Arabidopsis, the lysin motif (LysM)-containing chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 (CERK1) has been shown to be essential for perception of the fungal cell wall component chitin and for resistance to fungal pathogens. Recent in vitro studies with CERK1 protein expressed heterologously in yeast suggested direct chitin binding activity. Here we show in an affinity purification approach that CERK1 is a major chitin-binding protein of Arabidopsis cells, along with several known and putative chitinases. The ectodomain of CERK1 harbors three distinct LysM domains with potential ligand binding capacity. We demonstrate that the CERK1 ectodomain binds chitin and partially deacetylated chitosan directly without any requirement for interacting proteins and that all three LysM domains are necessary for chitin binding. Ligand-induced phosphorylation events are a general feature of animal and plant signal transduction pathways. Our studies show that chitin, chitin oligomers, and chitosan rapidly induce in vivo phosphorylation of CERK1 at multiple residues in the juxtamembrane and kinase domain. Functional analyses with a kinase dead variant provide evidence that kinase activity of CERK1 is required for its chitin-dependent in vivo phosphorylation, as well as for early defense responses and downstream signaling. Collectively, our data suggest that in Arabidopsis, CERK1 is a major chitin, chitosan, and chito-oligomer binding component and that chitin signaling depends on CERK1 post-translational modification and kinase activity.

Nod factor induces soybean resistance to powdery mildew

Plants possess highly sensitive perception systems by which microbial signal molecules are recognized. In the Bradyrhizobium-soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) symbiosis, recognition is initiated through exchange of signal molecules, generally flavonoids from soybean and lipo-chitooligosaccharides (Nod factors) from the microsymbiont. Application of the Nod factor Nod Bj-V (C18:1, MeFuc) induced soybean resistance to powdery mildew caused by Microsphaera diffusa. Addition of Nod factor (concentrations ranging from 10(-6) to 10(-10) M) to soybean root systems led to reductions in disease incidence. The lowest disease incidence was caused by Nod factor treatment at 10(-6) M. The effect of Nod factor application on fungal growth and development was measured at 4, 12, 48, and 96 h after inoculation. Colony diameter and number of germ tubes per conidium were decreased by 10(-6) M Nod factor. Phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL, EC.4.3.1.1.) is the first enzyme of the phenyl propanoid pathway, and is commonly activated as part of plant responses to disease. Treatment of soybean seedlings with Nod factor, through stem wounds, induced PAL activity; the most rapid increase followed treatment with 10(-6) M Nod factor. These data show that soybean plants are able to detect root applied LCO and respond by increased disease resistance.

Nod factors induce nod factor cleaving enzymes in pea roots. Genetic and pharmacological approaches indicate different activation mechanisms

Establishment of symbiosis between legumes and rhizobia requires bacterial Nod factors (NFs). The concentration of these lipochitooligosaccharides in the rhizosphere is influenced by plant enzymes. NFs induce on pea (Pisum sativum) a particular extracellular NF hydrolase that releases lipodisaccharides from NFs from Sinorhizobium meliloti. Here, we investigated the ability of non-nodulating pea mutants to respond to NodRlv factors (NFs from Rhizobium leguminosarum bv viciae) with enhanced NF hydrolase activity. Mutants defective in the symbiotic genes sym10, sym8, sym19, and sym9/sym30 did not exhibit any stimulation of the NF hydrolase, indicating that the enzyme is induced via an NF signal transduction pathway that includes calcium spiking (transient increases in intracellular Ca(2+) levels). Interestingly, the NF hydrolase activity in these sym mutants was even lower than in wild-type peas, which were not pretreated with NodRlv factors. Activation of the NF hydrolase in wild-type plants was a specific response to NodRlv factors. The induction of the NF hydrolase was blocked by alpha-amanitin, cycloheximide, tunicamycin, EGTA, U73122, and calyculin A. Inhibitory effects, albeit weaker, were also found for brefeldin A, BHQ and ethephon. In addition to this NF hydrolase, NFs and stress-related signals (ethylene and salicylic acid) stimulated a pea chitinase that released lipotrisaccharides from pentameric NFs from S. meliloti. NodRlv factors failed to stimulate the chitinase in mutants defective in the sym10 and sym8 genes, whereas other mutants (e.g. mutated in the sym19 gene) retained their ability to increase the chitinase activity. These findings indicate that calcium spiking is not implicated in stimulation of the chitinase. We suggest that downstream of Sym8, a stress-related signal transduction pathway branches off from the NF signal transduction pathway.

The role of nod factor substituents in actin cytoskeleton rearrangements in Phaseolus vulgaris

In order to define the symbiotic role of some of the chemical substituents in the Rhizobium etli Nod factors (NFs), we purified Nod metabolites secreted by the SM25 strain, which carries most of the nodulation genes, and SM17 with an insertion in nodS. These NFs were analyzed for their capabilities to induce root hair curling and cytoskeletal rearrangements. The NFs secreted by strain SM17 lack the carbamoyl and methyl substituents on the nonreducing terminal residue and an acetyl moiety on the fucosyl residue on the reducing-terminal residue as determined by mass spectrometry. We have reported previously that the root hair cell actin cytoskeleton from bean responds with a rapid fragmentation of the actin bundles within 5 min of NF exposure, and also is accompanied by increases in the apical influxes and intracellular calcium levels. In this article, we report that methyl-bearing NFs are more active in inducing root hair curling and actin cytoskeleton rearrangements than nonmethylated NFs. However, the carbamoyl residue on the nonreducing terminal residue and the acetyl group at the fucosyl residue on the reducing terminal residue do not seem to have any effect on root hair curling induction or in actin cytoskeleton rearrangement.

Nod factor structures, responses, and perception during initiation of nodule development

The onset of nodule development, the result of rhizobia-legume symbioses, is determined by the exchange of chemical compounds between microsymbiont and leguminous host plant. Lipo-chitooligosaccharidic nodulation (Nod) factors, secreted by rhizobia, belong to these signal molecules. Nod factors consist of an acylated chitin oligomeric backbone with various substitutions at the (non)reducing-terminal and/or nonterminal residues. They induce the formation and deformation of root hairs, intra- and extracellular alkalinization, membrane potential depolarization, changes in ion fluxes, early nodulin gene expression, and formation of nodule primordia. Nod factors play a key role during nodule initiation and act at nano- to picomolar concentrations. A correct chemical structure is required for induction of a particular plant response, suggesting that Nod factor-receptor interaction(s) precede(s) a Nod factor-induced signal transduction cascade. Current data on Nod factor structures and Nod factor-induced responses are highlighted as well as recent advances in the characterization of proteins, possibly involved in recognition of Nod factors by the host plant.

Nod factors and chitooligomers elicit an increase in cytosolic calcium in aequorin-expressing soybean cells

Rhizobial Nod factors (NFs) function as nodulation signals that trigger symbiotic responses of leguminous host plants. NFs consist of a chitin oligomer backbone carrying a fatty acid at the non-reducing end. Depending on the rhizobial strain, NFs carry additional substituents, which may determine host specificity. Transgenic suspension-cultured soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) cells expressing aequorin have been used to record cytosolic [Ca(2+)] changes upon treatment with purified NFs and chitin fragments. Both compounds elicited an increase of cytosolic [Ca(2+)] at nanomolar concentrations. The shape and amplitude of cytosolic [Ca(2+)] changes was similar to the response elicited by un-derivatized chitin oligomers. Cells challenged first with NFs did not respond to a subsequent treatment with chitin oligomers and vice versa. Dose-response experiments showed that un-derivatized chitin oligomers were more active compared with NFs. The capacity of NFs to elicit the calcium response depended on their structure. The presence of reducing end substituents in methylfucosylated NFs from Rhizobium sp. NGR234 and the O-acetyl group at the non-reducing end in NFs from Sinorhizobium meliloti attenuated the activity to cause the calcium changes. The sulfate group in NFs from Rhizobium tropici did not affect the elicitor activity. Pentameric S. meliloti NFs were more active than tetrameric molecules, whereas trimeric or dimeric degradation products were inactive. Substituents in NFs may have the function to avoid stimulation of defense reactions mediated by the perception system for chitin oligomers.