Impaired male sexual behavior in activin receptor type II knockout mice

Assessing genetic conservation of human sociability-linked genes in C. elegans

Social behavior is a common though variable trait across animal species. How much of the variation in social behavior is due to biological common mechanisms across animal species is unknown. In this study we examined to what extent human genetic variation in sociability is affected by pathways shared with Caenorhabditis elegans and whether any conserved sociability-linked genes show enhanced levels of essential functions and interactivity. We found inconsistent evidence of increased conservation with more thorough analyses resulting in no evidence of increased conservation of human sociability-linked genes. Conserved genes were highly interactive compared to nonconserved and random genes, while only a limited number of genetic interactions were found to be conserved. No evidence was found for enrichment of social phenotypes in C. elegans orthologs of human sociability-linked genes while evidence for associations with essential functions were limited. The activin A receptor type 2A (ACVR2A) gene appears to play a role in social behavior in both humans and C. elegans, making it an interesting gene for further study.

Social status mediated variation in hypothalamic transcriptional profiles of male mice

Animals of different social status exhibit variation in aggression, territorial and reproductive behavior as well as activity patterns, feeding, drinking and status signaling. This behavioral and physiological plasticity is coordinated by underlying changes in brain gene transcription. Using Tag-based RNA sequencing (Tag-seq), we explore RNA transcriptomes from the medial preoptic area (mPOA) and ventral hypothalamus (vHYP) of male mice of different social ranks in a dominance hierarchy and detect candidate genes and cellular pathways that underlie status-related plasticity. Within the mPOA, oxytocin (Oxt) and vasopressin (Avp) are more highly expressed in subdominant mice compared to other ranks, while nitric oxide synthase (Nos1) has lower expression in subdominant mice. Within the vHYP, we find that both orexigenic and anorexigenic genes involved in feeding behavior, including agouti-related peptide (Agrp), neuropeptide-Y (Npy), galanin (Gal), proopiomelanocortin (Pomc), and Cocaine- and Amphetamine-Regulated Transcript Protein prepropeptide (Cartpt), are less expressed in dominant animals compared to more subordinate ranks. We suggest that this may represent a reshaping of feeding circuits in dominant compared to subdominant and subordinate animals. Furthermore, we determine several genes that are positively and negatively associated with the level of despotism (aggression) in dominant males. Ultimately, we identify hypothalamic genes controlling feeding and social behaviors that are differentially transcribed across animals of varying social status. These changes in brain transcriptomics likely support phenotypic variation that enable animals to adapt to their current social status.

Transcription factor gene Pea3 regulates erectile function during copulation in mice

Male mice with homozygous loss of function mutations of the transcription factor gene Pea3 (Pea3 null) are infertile due to their inability to inseminate females, however the specific deficits in male sexual behaviors that drive this phenotype are unknown. Here, the copulatory behavior of male mice (Pea3 null and control) with hormonally primed ovariectomized females was monitored via high-speed and high-resolution digital videography to assess for differences in female-directed social behaviors, gross sexual behaviors (mounting, thrusting), and erectile and ejaculatory function. Pea3 null male mice exhibit greatly reduced erectile function, with 44% of males displaying no visible erections during copulation, and 0% achieving sustained erections. As such, Pea3 null males are incapable of intromission and copulatory plug deposition, despite displaying largely normal female-directed social behaviors, mounting behaviors, and ejaculatory grasping behavior. Additionally, the organization and timing of thrusting behaviors is impaired in Pea3 null males. Our results show that the transcription factor gene Pea3 regulates the ability to achieve and maintain erections during copulation in mice.

Erectile Function and Sexual Behavior: A Review of the Role of Nitric Oxide in the Central Nervous System

Nitric oxide (NO), the neuromodulator/neurotransmitter formed from l-arginine by neuronal, endothelial and inducible NO synthases, is involved in numerous functions across the body, from the control of arterial blood pressure to penile erection, and at central level from energy homeostasis regulation to memory, learning and sexual behavior. The aim of this work is to review earlier studies showing that NO plays a role in erectile function and sexual behavior in the hypothalamus and its paraventricular nucleus and the medial preoptic area, and integrate these findings with those of recent studies on this matter. This revisitation shows that NO influences erectile function and sexual behavior in males and females by acting not only in the paraventricular nucleus and medial preoptic area but also in extrahypothalamic brain areas, often with different mechanisms. Most importantly, since these areas are strictly interconnected with the paraventricular nucleus and medial preoptic area, send to and receive neural projections from the spinal cord, in which sexual communication between brain and genital apparatus takes place, this review reveals that central NO participates in concert with neurotransmitters/neuropeptides to a neural circuit controlling both the consummatory (penile erection, copulation, lordosis) and appetitive components (sexual motivation, arousal, reward) of sexual behavior.

Gonadal Cycle-Dependent Expression of Genes Encoding Peptide-, Growth Factor-, and Orphan G-Protein-Coupled Receptors in Gonadotropin- Releasing Hormone Neurons of Mice

Rising serum estradiol triggers the surge release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) at late proestrus leading to ovulation. We hypothesized that proestrus evokes alterations in peptidergic signaling onto GnRH neurons inducing a differential expression of neuropeptide-, growth factor-, and orphan G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) genes. Thus, we analyzed the transcriptome of GnRH neurons collected from intact, proestrous and metestrous GnRH-green fluorescent protein (GnRH-GFP) transgenic mice using Affymetrix microarray technique. Proestrus resulted in a differential expression of genes coding for peptide/neuropeptide receptors including Adipor1, Prokr1, Ednrb, Rtn4r, Nmbr, Acvr2b, Sctr, Npr3, Nmur1, Mc3r, Cckbr, and Amhr2. In this gene cluster, Adipor1 mRNA expression was upregulated and the others were downregulated. Expression of growth factor receptors and their related proteins was also altered showing upregulation of Fgfr1, Igf1r, Grb2, Grb10, and Ngfrap1 and downregulation of Egfr and Tgfbr2 genes. Gpr107, an orphan GPCR, was upregulated during proestrus, while others were significantly downregulated (Gpr1, Gpr87, Gpr18, Gpr62, Gpr125, Gpr183, Gpr4, and Gpr88). Further affected receptors included vomeronasal receptors (Vmn1r172, Vmn2r-ps54, and Vmn1r148) and platelet-activating factor receptor (Ptafr), all with marked downregulation. Patch-clamp recordings from mouse GnRH-GFP neurons carried out at metestrus confirmed that the differentially expressed IGF-1, secretin, and GPR107 receptors were operational, as their activation by specific ligands evoked an increase in the frequency of miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs). These findings show the contribution of certain novel peptides, growth factors, and ligands of orphan GPCRs to regulation of GnRH neurons and their preparation for the surge release.

Molecular regulation of follicle-stimulating hormone synthesis, secretion and action

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) plays fundamental roles in male and female fertility. FSH is a heterodimeric glycoprotein expressed by gonadotrophs in the anterior pituitary. The hormone-specific FSHβ-subunit is non-covalently associated with the common α-subunit that is also present in the luteinizing hormone (LH), another gonadotrophic hormone secreted by gonadotrophs and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secreted by thyrotrophs. Several decades of research led to the purification, structural characterization and physiological regulation of FSH in a variety of species including humans. With the advent of molecular tools, availability of immortalized gonadotroph cell lines and genetically modified mouse models, our knowledge on molecular mechanisms of FSH regulation has tremendously expanded. Several key players that regulate FSH synthesis, sorting, secretion and action in gonads and extragonadal tissues have been identified in a physiological setting. Novel post-transcriptional and post-translational regulatory mechanisms have also been identified that provide additional layers of regulation mediating FSH homeostasis. Recombinant human FSH analogs hold promise for a variety of clinical applications, whereas blocking antibodies against FSH may prove efficacious for preventing age-dependent bone loss and adiposity. It is anticipated that several exciting new discoveries uncovering all aspects of FSH biology will soon be forthcoming.

Mouse Models for the Study of Synthesis, Secretion, and Action of Pituitary Gonadotropins

Gonadotropins play fundamental roles in reproduction. More than 30years ago, Cga transgenic mice were generated, and more than 20years ago, the phenotypes of Cga null mice were reported. Since then, numerous mouse strains have been generated and characterized to address several questions in reproductive biology involving gonadotropin synthesis, secretion, and action. More recently, extragonadal expression, and in some cases, functions of gonadotropins in nongonadal tissues have been identified. Several genomic and proteomic approaches including novel mouse genome editing tools are available now. It is anticipated that these and other emerging technologies will be useful to build an integrated network of gonadotropin signaling pathways in various tissues. Undoubtedly, research on gonadotropins will continue to provide new knowledge and allow us transcend from benchside to the bedside.

Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling in development and human diseases

Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are a group of signaling molecules that belongs to the Transforming Growth Factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily of proteins. Initially discovered for their ability to induce bone formation, BMPs are now known to play crucial roles in all organ systems. BMPs are important in embryogenesis and development, and also in maintenance of adult tissue homeostasis. Mouse knockout models of various components of the BMP signaling pathway result in embryonic lethality or marked defects, highlighting the essential functions of BMPs. In this review, we first outline the basic aspects of BMP signaling and then focus on genetically manipulated mouse knockout models that have helped elucidate the role of BMPs in development. A significant portion of this review is devoted to the prominent human pathologies associated with dysregulated BMP signaling.

The power of mouse genetics to study spermatogenesis

Approximately 80 million people worldwide are infertile, and nearly half of all infertility cases are attributed to a male factor. Therefore, progress in reproductive genetics becomes crucial for future diagnosis and treatment of infertility. In recent years, enormous progress has been made in this field. More than 400 mutant mouse models with specific reproductive abnormalities have been produced, and numerous human association studies have been discovered. However, the translation of basic science findings to clinical practice remains protracted, with only modest progress in the application of novel findings to clinical genetic testing and cures. To date, the most significant findings in male infertility remain numeric and structural chromosomal abnormalities and Y-chromosome microdeletions in infertile men. Thus, we anticipate that future genetic investigations will focus on infertile men with a normal somatic karyotype but with various spermatozoal defects, like insufficient production of spermatozoa (oligozoospermia), inadequate motility (asthenozoospermia), abnormal morphology (teratozoospermia), or combinations of these defects. Ultimately, basic advances in mammalian nonhuman reproduction will translate to clinical advances in human reproduction and testing for infertile humans, thereby helping to improve diagnostics and health care for infertile patients.

The goldfish (Carassius auratus) as a model for neuroendocrine signaling

Goldfish (Carassius auratus) are excellent model organisms for the neuroendocrine signaling and the regulation of reproduction in vertebrates. Goldfish also serve as useful model organisms in numerous other fields. In contrast to mammals, teleost fish do not have a median eminence; the anterior pituitary is innervated by numerous neuronal cell types and thus, pituitary hormone release is directly regulated. Here we briefly describe the neuroendocrine control of luteinizing hormone. Stimulation by gonadotropin-releasing hormone and a multitude of classical neurotransmitters and neuropeptides is opposed by the potent inhibitory actions of dopamine. The stimulatory actions of gamma-aminobutyric acid and serotonin are also discussed. We will focus on the development of a cDNA microarray composed of carp and goldfish sequences which has allowed us to examine neurotransmitter-regulated gene expression in the neuroendocrine brain and to investigate potential genomic interactions between these key neurotransmitter systems. We observed that isotocin (fish homologue of oxytocin) and activins are regulated by multiple neurotransmitters, which is discussed in light of their roles in reproduction in other species. We have also found that many novel and uncharacterized goldfish expressed sequence tags in the brain are also regulated by neurotransmitters. Their sites of production and whether they play a role in neuroendocrine signaling and control of reproduction remain to be determined. The transcriptomic tools developed to study reproduction could also be used to advance our understanding of neuroendocrine-immune interactions and the relationship between growth and food intake in fish.

Impaired sexual behavior in male mice deficient for the beta1-3 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-I gene

The beta1-3 N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase-1 (B3gnt1) gene encodes a poly-N-acetyllactosamine synthase which can initiate and extend poly-N-acetyllactosamine chains [Gal(beta1-4)GlcNAc (beta1-3)(n)]. Previous investigations with heterozygous and homozygous null mice for this gene have revealed the importance of poly-N-acetyllactosamine chains for the formation of olfactory axon connections with the olfactory bulb and the migration of gonadotropin releasing hormone neurons to the hypothalamus. The possible long-term effects of these developmental defects, however, has not yet been studied. Here we have examined a reproductive phenotype observed in B3gnt1-null mice. Whereas the B3gnt1 null females were fertile, the B3gnt1 null males were not able to sire litters at the expected rate when mated to either wildtype or B3gnt1-null females. We assessed male sexual behavior as well as male reproduction parameters such as testes size, spermatogenesis, sperm number, morphology, and the development of early embryos in order to identify the source of a reduced rate of reproduction. Our findings show that the B3gnt1 null male reproductive organs were functional and could not account for the lower rate at which they produced offspring with wildtype conspecifics. Hence, we propose that the phenotype observed resulted from an impaired sexual response to female mating partners.

Differential expression of TGFBR3 (betaglycan) in mouse ovary and testis during gonadogenesis

TGFBR3 is an accessory receptor that binds to and modulates the activities of both transforming growth factor-beta (TGFbeta) and inhibin, two members of the TGFbeta superfamily of growth factors that regulate many aspects of reproductive biology. Tgfbr3 is known to be expressed in adult testis and ovary, but little is known about this receptor during gonadogenesis. Herein, we describe Tgfbr3 expression in the male and female fetal and neonatal murine gonad. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that Tgfbr3 mRNA was expressed at higher levels in the developing testis compared to ovary. TGFBR3 was expressed within the fetal testis interstitium, predominantly by Leydig cells, but expression shifted inside the seminiferous cords at birth. In contrast, TGFBR3 was detected in both the somatic and germ cell lineages in the fetal and neonatal ovary. This differential expression pattern suggests divergent roles for this TGFBR3 in developing testis and ovary.

Transforming growth factor-beta1 null mutation causes infertility in male mice associated with testosterone deficiency and sexual dysfunction

TGFbeta1 is a multifunctional cytokine implicated in gonad and secondary sex organ development, steroidogenesis, and spermatogenesis. To determine the physiological requirement for TGFbeta1 in male reproduction, Tgfb1 null mutant mice on a Prkdc(scid) immunodeficient background were studied. TGFbeta1-deficient males did not deposit sperm or induce pseudopregnancy in females, despite an intact reproductive tract with morphologically normal penis, seminal vesicles, and testes. Serum and intratesticular testosterone and serum androstenedione were severely diminished in TGFbeta1-deficient males. Testosterone deficiency was secondary to disrupted pituitary gonadotropin secretion because serum LH and to a lesser extent serum FSH were reduced, and exogenous LH replacement with human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) induced serum testosterone to control levels. In the majority of TGFbeta1-deficient males, spermatogenesis was normal and sperm were developmentally competent as assessed by in vitro fertilization. Analysis of sexual behavior revealed that although TGFbeta1 null males showed avid interest in females and engaged in mounting activity, intromission was infrequent and brief, and ejaculation was not attained. Administration of testosterone to adult males, even after neonatal androgenization, was ineffective in restoring sexual function; however, erectile reflexes and ejaculation could be induced by electrical stimulation. These studies demonstrate the profound effect of genetic deficiency in TGFbeta1 on male fertility, implicating this cytokine in essential roles in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and in testosterone-independent regulation of mating competence.

Disruption of sexual function, FSH secretion, and spermiogenesis in rabbits following developmental exposure to vinclozolin, a fungicide

We studied sequelae of prenatal plus infantile exposure of male rabbits to vinclozolin, because it is ingested by women and children. Female Dutch-Belted rabbits (7–10/group) were treated daily per orum from gestation day 15 through post-natal week 4 to provide 0, 7.2, or 72 mg vinclozolin/kg dam’s body weight/day. Vinclozolin had no effect on maintenance of pregnancy, growth of pups, age at testicular descent or weight of organs. Concentrations of serum LH or testosterone at 6, 12, or 24 weeks of age were unaffected. However, FSH was lower (P< 0.05) in both vinclozolin groups at all three ages. Following injection of GnRH at 12 or 24 weeks, the increase in FSH was less (P< 0.05) in both vinclozolin groups, as was testosterone at 12 weeks of age. After full sexual maturity, 2 of 7 low dose rabbits were uninterested in female or male teasers and never achieved erection or ejaculation. Overall, rates of ejaculation failure were: control 0% (0/48), low dose 29% (12/42), and high dose 5% (3/60). Daily sperm production per gram of testis and total number of sperm per ejaculate in both vinclozolin groups were similar (P> 0.1) to controls. However, semen from vinclozolin rabbits contained over two times more (P< 0.05) morphologically abnormal spermatozoa, mostly nuclear and acrosomal defects, than semen from controls. Seminiferous tubules with degenerative changes were more frequent (P< 0.05) in vinclozolin rabbits than in controls. Lesions included syncytia of spherical spermatids and desquamation of germ cells. Hence, developmental exposure to vinclozolin caused presumably permanent changes in copulatory ability, secretion of FSH, and spermiogenesis.