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Kempińska-Podhorodecka A, Abramczyk J, Cielica E, Huła B, Maciejowska H, Banales J, Milkiewicz P, Milkiewicz M. Effect of Low Testosterone Levels on the Expression of Proliferator-Activated Receptor Alpha in Female Patients with Primary Biliary Cholangitis. Cells 2023; 12:2273. [PMID: 37759496 PMCID: PMC10526765 DOI: 10.3390/cells12182273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex-dependent patterns in chronic immune-mediated cholangiopathies, like primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), remain poorly understood. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α), expressed in immune cells, plays a key role in innate defence. In this study, the relationship between PPAR-α expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), serum androgen levels, IFNγ production, and sex-dependent tendencies during the development of PBC and PSC was investigated. We confirmed that normal cholangiocytes respond to PPAR-α and inhibit the lipopolysaccharide-induced expression of IL-6, IL-1b, and TNFα. Compared with PSC patients, PPAR-α was downregulated, while IFNγ was upregulated, in the PBMCs of PBC patients. When the analysis was conducted on females only, there was no difference in PPAR-α, but IFNγ was elevated in females with PBC compared with those with PSC. Serum testosterone concentrations in females with PBC were below the normal range (regardless of age) and correlated positively with PPAR-α and negatively with IFNγ. While PPAR-α has been reported to be a target of miR-155 and miR-21, no correlations with these microRNAs were observed in the PBMCs. However, a positive correlation between miR-21 and IFNγ was observed. Our results showed suppressed PPAR-α expression accompanied by reduced testosterone levels in women with PBC, which should elicit interest in the role of testosterone in PBC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Kempińska-Podhorodecka
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Joanna Abramczyk
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Eliza Cielica
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Bartosz Huła
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Hanna Maciejowska
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
| | - Jesus Banales
- Department of Liver and Gastrointestinal Diseases, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, Donostia University Hospital, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), CIBERehd, Ikerbasque, 20014 San Sebastian, Spain;
- Department of Biochemistry and Genetics, School of Science, University of Navarra, 31009 Pamplona, Spain
| | - Piotr Milkiewicz
- Liver and Internal Medicine Unit, Medical University of Warsaw, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Milkiewicz
- Department of Medical Biology, Pomeranian Medical University, 70-111 Szczecin, Poland; (A.K.-P.); (J.A.); (E.C.); (B.H.); (H.M.); (M.M.)
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2
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Hoseinzadeh A, Rezaieyazdi Z, Afshari JT, Mahmoudi A, Heydari S, Moradi R, Esmaeili SA, Mahmoudi M. Modulation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells-Mediated Adaptive Immune Effectors' Repertoire in the Recovery of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2023; 19:322-344. [PMID: 36272020 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-022-10452-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The breakdown of self-tolerance of the immune response can lead to autoimmune conditions in which chronic inflammation induces tissue damage. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a debilitating multisystemic autoimmune disorder with a high prevalence in women of childbearing age; however, SLE incidence, prevalence, and severity are strongly influenced by ethnicity. Although the mystery of autoimmune diseases remains unsolved, disturbance in the proportion and function of B cell subsets has a major role in SLE's pathogenesis. Additionally, colocalizing hyperactive T helper cell subgroups within inflammatory niches are indispensable. Despite significant advances in standard treatments, nonspecific immunosuppression, the risk of serious infections, and resistance to conventional therapies in some cases have raised the urgent need for new treatment strategies. Without the need to suppress the immune system, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), as ''smart" immune modulators, are able to control cellular and humoral auto-aggression responses by participating in precursor cell development. In lupus, due to autologous MSCs disorder, the ability of allogenic engrafted MSCs in tissue regeneration and resetting immune homeostasis with the provision of a new immunocyte repertoire has been considered simultaneously. In Brief The bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) lineage plays a critical role in maintaining the hematopoietic stem-cell microstructure and modulating immunocytes. The impairment of BM-MSCs and their niche partially contribute to the pathogenesis of SLE-like diseases. Allogenic MSC transplantation can reconstruct BM microstructure, possibly contributing to the recovery of immunocyte phenotype restoration of immune homeostasis. In terms of future prospects of MSCs, artificially gained by ex vivo isolation and culture adaptation, the wide variety of potential mediators and mechanisms might be linked to the promotion of the immunomodulatory function of MSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akram Hoseinzadeh
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Zahra Rezaieyazdi
- Department of Rheumatology, Ghaem Hospital, Mashhad University of Medical Science, Mashhad, Iran.,Rheumatic Diseases Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Jalil Tavakol Afshari
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Ali Mahmoudi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sahar Heydari
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Sabzevar University of Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran
| | - Reza Moradi
- Nanotechnology Research Center, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Seyed-Alireza Esmaeili
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Mahmoudi
- Immunology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Department of Immunology, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Azadi Square, Kalantari Blvd, Pardi's campusMashhad, Iran.
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3
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Kim JW, Kim HA, Suh CH, Jung JY. Sex hormones affect the pathogenesis and clinical characteristics of systemic lupus erythematosus. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:906475. [PMID: 36035435 PMCID: PMC9402996 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.906475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) affects women more frequently than men, similar to the female predilection for other autoimmune diseases. Moreover, male patients with SLE exhibit different clinical features than female patients. Sex-associated differences in SLE required special considerations for disease management such as during pregnancy or hormone replacement therapy (HRT). Sex hormones, namely, estrogen and testosterone, are known to affect immune responses and autoimmunity. While estrogen and progesterone promote type I immune response, and testosterone enhances T-helper 1 response. Sex hormones also influence Toll-like receptor pathways, and estrogen receptor signaling is involved in the activation and tolerance of immune cells. Further, the clinical features of SLE vary according to hormonal changes in female patients. Alterations in sex hormones during pregnancy can alter the disease activity of SLE, which is associated with pregnancy outcomes. Additionally, HRT may change SLE status. Sex hormones affect the pathogenesis, clinical features, and management of SLE; thus, understanding the occurrence and exacerbation of disease caused by sex hormones is necessary to improve its management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Won Kim
- Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Hyoun-Ah Kim
- Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Chang-Hee Suh
- Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University, Suwon, South Korea
| | - Ju-Yang Jung
- Department of Rheumatology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, South Korea
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4
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Song Y, Xiao YZ, Wang C, Du R. Immunoadsorption therapy for Klinefelter syndrome with antiphospholipid syndrome in a patient: A case report. World J Clin Cases 2022; 10:6580-6586. [PMID: 35979279 PMCID: PMC9294875 DOI: 10.12998/wjcc.v10.i19.6580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Klinefelter syndrome (KS) is a genetic disease of male sex chromosome malformations that affects sperm production and reduces testosterone production. It has been reported that there is currently more than 10 cases of KS combined with antiphospholipid syndrome.
CASE SUMMARY Here, we describe a 31-year-old male patient with chromosome 47, XXY type, who suffered deep vein thrombosis of the lower limbs accompanied by abnormal antiphospholipid antibody, lupus anticoagulant and factor VIII. After treatment with immunoadsorption therapy, glucocorticoids, cyclophosphamide, intravenous immunoglobulin and anticoagulant therapy, the patient showed dramatic symptomatic improvement. During the follow-up, the patient did not develop any new thrombotic events.
CONCLUSION Immunoadsorption combined with glucocorticoid and cyclophosphamide shock comprehensive treatment has achieved significant results for patients with KS combined with antiphospholipid syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- You Song
- Department of Rheumatology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yong-Zhen Xiao
- Health Management Center, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, Hubei Province, China
| | - Cheng Wang
- Department of Rheumatology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, Hubei Province, China
| | - Rong Du
- Department of Rheumatology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430022, Hubei Province, China
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5
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Panimolle F, Tiberti C, Spaziani M, Riitano G, Lucania G, Anzuini A, Lenzi A, Gianfrilli D, Sorice M, Radicioni AF. Non-organ-specific autoimmunity in adult 47,XXY Klinefelter patients and higher-grade X-chromosome aneuploidies. Clin Exp Immunol 2021; 205:316-325. [PMID: 33978253 DOI: 10.1111/cei.13616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Current literature regarding systemic autoimmune diseases in X-chromosome aneuploidies is scarce and limited to case reports. Our aim was to evaluate the frequency of anti-nuclear (ANAs), extractable nuclear (ENA), anti-double-stranded DNA (dsDNAs), anti-smooth muscle (ASMAs) and anti-mitochondrial (AMAs) antibodies in a large cohort of adults with Klinefelter's syndrome (KS, 47,XXY) and rare higher-grade sex chromosome aneuploidies (HGAs) for the first time. Sera from 138 X-chromosome aneuploid patients [124 adult patients with 47,XXY KS and 14 patients with HGA (six children, eight adults)] and 50 age-matched 46,XY controls were recruited from the Sapienza University of Rome (2007-17) and tested for ANAs, ENAs, anti-dsDNAs, ASMAs and AMAs. Non-organ-specific immunoreactivity was found to be significantly higher in patients with 47,XXY KS (14%) than in the controls (2%, p = 0.002). Among all the antibodies investigated, only ANAs were observed significantly more frequently in patients with 47,XXY KS (12.1%) than in the controls (2%, p = 0.004). No anti-dsDNA immunoreactivity was found. Stratifying by testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), non-organ-specific autoantibody frequencies were higher in TRT-naive (p = 0.01) and TRT-treated groups than in controls. No patients with HGA were found positive for the various autoantibodies. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies were significantly present in 47,XXY adult patients. Conversely, HGAs did not appear to be target of non-organ-specific immunoreactivity, suggesting that KS and HGAs should be considered as two distinct conditions. The classification and diagnosis of systemic autoimmune diseases is frequently difficult. To support a correct clinical evaluation of KS disease and to prevent eventual secondary irreversible immune-mediated damages, we highlight the importance of screening for non-organ-specific autoimmunity in Klinefelter's syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Panimolle
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Claudio Tiberti
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Matteo Spaziani
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Gloria Riitano
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lucania
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Antonella Anzuini
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Andrea Lenzi
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Daniele Gianfrilli
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sorice
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
| | - Antonio F Radicioni
- Center of Rare Diseases, Section of Medical Pathophysiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Sapienza University of Rome, Roma, Italy
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6
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Cutolo M, Straub RH. Sex steroids and autoimmune rheumatic diseases: state of the art. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2020; 16:628-644. [PMID: 33009519 DOI: 10.1038/s41584-020-0503-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In autoimmune rheumatic diseases, oestrogens can stimulate certain immune responses (including effects on B cells and innate immunity), but can also have dose-related anti-inflammatory effects on T cells, macrophages and other immune cells. By contrast, androgens and progesterone have predominantly immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory effects. Hormone replacement therapies and oral contraception (and also pregnancy) enhance or decrease the severity of autoimmune rheumatic diseases at a genetic or epigenetic level. Serum androgen concentrations are often low in men and in women with autoimmune rheumatic diseases, suggesting that androgen-like compounds might be a promising therapeutic approach. However, androgen-to-oestrogen conversion (known as intracrinology) is enhanced in inflamed tissues, such as those present in patients with autoimmune rheumatic diseases. In addition, it is becoming evident that the gut microbiota differs between the sexes (known as the microgenderome) and leads to sex-dependent genetic and epigenetic changes in gastrointestinal inflammation, systemic immunity and, potentially, susceptibility to autoimmune or inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Future clinical research needs to focus on the therapeutic use of androgens and progestins or their downstream signalling cascades and on new oestrogenic compounds such as tissue-selective oestrogen complex to modulate altered immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Cutolo
- Research Laboratories and Academic Division of Clinical Rheumatology, Postgraduate School of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine DIMI, University of Genova, IRCCS San Martino Polyclinic, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Rainer H Straub
- Laboratory of Experimental Rheumatology and Neuroendocrine Immunology, Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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7
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Lasrado N, Jia T, Massilamany C, Franco R, Illes Z, Reddy J. Mechanisms of sex hormones in autoimmunity: focus on EAE. Biol Sex Differ 2020; 11:50. [PMID: 32894183 PMCID: PMC7475723 DOI: 10.1186/s13293-020-00325-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex-related differences in the occurrence of autoimmune diseases is well documented, with females showing a greater propensity to develop these diseases than their male counterparts. Sex hormones, namely dihydrotestosterone and estrogens, have been shown to ameliorate the severity of inflammatory diseases. Immunologically, the beneficial effects of sex hormones have been ascribed to the suppression of effector lymphocyte responses accompanied by immune deviation from pro-inflammatory to anti-inflammatory cytokine production. In this review, we present our view of the mechanisms of sex hormones that contribute to their ability to suppress autoimmune responses with an emphasis on the pathogenesis of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ninaad Lasrado
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
| | - Ting Jia
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
| | | | - Rodrigo Franco
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA
| | - Zsolt Illes
- Department of Neurology, Odense University Hospital, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Jay Reddy
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68583, USA.
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8
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Henze L, Schwinge D, Schramm C. The Effects of Androgens on T Cells: Clues to Female Predominance in Autoimmune Liver Diseases? Front Immunol 2020; 11:1567. [PMID: 32849531 PMCID: PMC7403493 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system responds differently in women and in men. Generally speaking, adult females show stronger innate and adaptive immune responses than males. This results in lower risk of developing most of the infectious diseases and a better ability to clear viral infection in women (1–5). On the other hand, women are at increased risk of developing autoimmune diseases (AID) such as rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), Sjögren's syndrome, and the autoimmune liver diseases autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) (6). Factors contributing to the female sex bias in autoimmune diseases include environmental exposure, e.g., microbiome, behavior, and genetics including X chromosomal inactivation of genes. Several lines of evidence and clinical observations clearly indicate that sex hormones contribute significantly to disease pathogenesis, and the role of estrogen in autoimmune diseases has been extensively studied. In many of these diseases, including the autoimmune liver diseases, T cells are thought to play an important pathogenetic role. We will use this mini-review to focus on the effects of androgens on T cells and how the two major androgens, testosterone and dihydrotestosterone, potentially contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune liver diseases (AILD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara Henze
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Dorothee Schwinge
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Schramm
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Martin Zeitz Centre for Rare Diseases, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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9
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Do Androgens Modulate the Pathophysiological Pathways of Inflammation? Appraising the Contemporary Evidence. J Clin Med 2018; 7:jcm7120549. [PMID: 30558178 PMCID: PMC6306858 DOI: 10.3390/jcm7120549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of testosterone in the pathophysiology of inflammation is of critical clinical importance; however, no universal mechanism(s) has been advanced to explain the complex and interwoven pathways of androgens in the attenuation of the inflammatory processes. PubMed and EMBASE searches were performed, including the following key words: "testosterone", "androgens", "inflammatory cytokines", "inflammatory biomarkers" with focus on clinical studies as well as basic scientific studies in human and animal models. Significant benefits of testosterone therapy in ameliorating or attenuating the symptoms of several chronic inflammatory diseases were reported. Because anti⁻tumor necrosis factor therapy is the mainstay for the treatment of moderate-to-severe inflammatory bowel disease; including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis, and because testosterone therapy in hypogonadal men with chronic inflammatory conditions reduce tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-1β, and IL-6, we suggest that testosterone therapy attenuates the inflammatory process and reduces the burden of disease by mechanisms inhibiting inflammatory cytokine expression and function. Mechanistically, androgens regulate the expression and function of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and CRP (C-reactive protein). Here, we suggest that testosterone regulates multiple and overlapping cellular and molecular pathways involving a host of immune cells and biochemical factors that converge to contribute to attenuation of the inflammatory process.
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10
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Gubbels Bupp MR, Jorgensen TN. Androgen-Induced Immunosuppression. Front Immunol 2018; 9:794. [PMID: 29755457 PMCID: PMC5932344 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to determining biological sex, sex hormones are known to influence health and disease via regulation of immune cell activities and modulation of target-organ susceptibility to immune-mediated damage. Systemic autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis are more prevalent in females, while cancer shows the opposite pattern. Sex hormones have been repeatedly suggested to play a part in these biases. In this review, we will discuss how androgens and the expression of functional androgen receptor affect immune cells and how this may dampen or alter immune response(s) and affect autoimmune disease incidences and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Trine N Jorgensen
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
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11
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Farajdokht F, Farhoudi M, Majdi A, Zamanlu M, Sadigh-Eteghad S, Vahedi S, Mahmoudi J. Testosterone May Hold Therapeutic Promise for the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke in Aging: A Closer Look at Laboratory Findings. Adv Pharm Bull 2018; 9:48-55. [PMID: 31011557 PMCID: PMC6468219 DOI: 10.15171/apb.2019.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Male sex is more prone to cerebrovascular disorders, yet the exact role of androgens in cerebral
ischemia remains unclear. Here we reviewed current understanding of testosterone (TES)
neuroprotective activity against ischemic stroke and mechanisms underlying these effects in
aging. TES may exert a neuroprotective effect in aging through pathways including inhibition of
oxidant molecules production, enhancing the enzymatic antioxidant capacity of the brain and
modulation of apoptotic cell death. Given this, a better understanding of the neuroprotective
roles of TES may propose an effective therapeutic strategy to improve the quality of life and
decrease androgen-related cerebrovascular problems in the aging men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fereshteh Farajdokht
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Farhoudi
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Alireza Majdi
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Masumeh Zamanlu
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Saeed Sadigh-Eteghad
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Shabnam Vahedi
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Javad Mahmoudi
- Neurosciences Research Center (NSRC), Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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12
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Tremellen K. Gut Endotoxin Leading to a Decline IN Gonadal function (GELDING) - a novel theory for the development of late onset hypogonadism in obese men. Basic Clin Androl 2016; 26:7. [PMID: 27340554 PMCID: PMC4918028 DOI: 10.1186/s12610-016-0034-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity is an increasing public health problem, with two-thirds of the adult population in many Western countries now being either overweight or obese. Male obesity is associated with late onset hypogonadism, a condition characterised by decreased serum testosterone, sperm quality plus diminished fertility and quality of life. In this paper we propose a novel theory underlying the development of obesity related hypogonadism- the GELDING theory (Gut Endotoxin Leading to a Decline IN Gonadal function). Several observational studies have previously reported an association between obesity related hypogonadism (low testosterone) and systemic inflammation. However, for the first time we postulate that the trans-mucosal passage of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from the gut lumen into the circulation is a key inflammatory trigger underlying male hypogonadism. Obesity and a high fat/high calorie diet are both reported to result in changes to gut bacteria and intestinal wall permeability, leading to the passage of bacterial endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide- LPS) from within the gut lumen into the circulation (metabolic endotoxaemia), where it initiates systemic inflammation. Endotoxin is known to reduce testosterone production by the testis, both by direct inhibition of Leydig cell steroidogenic pathways and indirectly by reducing pituitary LH drive, thereby also leading to a decline in sperm production. In this paper we also highlight the novel evolutionary benefits of the GELDING theory. Testosterone is known to be a powerful immune-suppressive, decreasing a man's ability to fight infection. Therefore we postulate that the male reproductive axis has evolved the capacity to lower testosterone production during times of infection and resulting endotoxin exposure, decreasing the immunosuppressive influence of testosterone, in turn enhancing the ability to fight infection. While this response is adaptive in times of sepsis, it becomes maladaptive in the setting of "non-infectious" obesity related metabolic endotoxaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelton Tremellen
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Reproductive Medicine, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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Alawad A, Altuwaijri S, Aljarbu A, Kryczek I, Niu Y, Al-sobayil FA, Chang C, Bayoumi A, Zou W, Rudat V, Hammad M. Depletion of androgen receptor (AR) in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) inhibits induction of CD4+CD25+FOX3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells via androgen TGF-β interaction. J Appl Biomed 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jab.2015.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
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Olsen NJ, Benko AL, Kovacs WJ. Variation in the androgen receptor gene exon 1 CAG repeat correlates with manifestations of autoimmunity in women with lupus. Endocr Connect 2014; 3:99-109. [PMID: 24711544 PMCID: PMC4012646 DOI: 10.1530/ec-14-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Clinical and experimental evidence support a role for gonadal steroids in modulating the expression and course of autoimmune diseases such as lupus. Whether or not inherited variation in sensitivity to circulating androgenic hormones could influence the manifestations of such disease is, however, unknown. We sought to determine whether differences in androgen sensitivity conferred by variation in the exon 1 CAG repeat region of the androgen receptor (AR) gene were associated with differences in the clinical or humoral immune manifestations of lupus in a cohort of female subjects. We found that shorter AR CAG repeat lengths in lupus subjects correlated with a higher Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index score, higher ANA levels, and expression of a broader array of IgG autoantibodies. Our findings of more severe clinical manifestations and more exuberant humoral autoimmunity in women with a shorter AR exon 1 CAG repeat length suggest a role for genetically determined sensitivity to androgens as a modulator of autoimmune processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy J Olsen
- Division of RheumatologyCollege of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, The Pennsylvania State UniversityMail Code H044, 500 University Drive, Hershey, Pennsylvania, 17033-0850USA
| | - Ann L Benko
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and MetabolismCollege of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, The Pennsylvania State UniversityMail Code H044, 500 University Drive, Hershey, Pennsylvania, 17033-0850USA
| | - William J Kovacs
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and MetabolismCollege of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, The Pennsylvania State UniversityMail Code H044, 500 University Drive, Hershey, Pennsylvania, 17033-0850USA
- Correspondence should be addressed to W J Kovacs,
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Lai JJ, Lai KP, Zeng W, Chuang KH, Altuwaijri S, Chang C. Androgen receptor influences on body defense system via modulation of innate and adaptive immune systems: lessons from conditional AR knockout mice. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 181:1504-12. [PMID: 22959669 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Upon insult, such as infection or tissue injury, the innate and adaptive immune systems initiate a series of responses to defend the body. Recent studies from immune cell-specific androgen receptor (AR) knockout mice demonstrated that androgen and its receptor (androgen/AR) play significant roles in both immune regulations. In the innate immunity, androgen/AR is required for generation and proper function of neutrophils; androgen/AR also regulates wound healing processes through macrophage recruitment and proinflammatory cytokine production. In adaptive immunity, androgen/AR exerts suppressive effects on development and activation of T and B cells. Removal of such suppression causes thymic enlargement and excessive export of immature B cells. Altogether, androgen/AR plays distinct roles in individual immune cells, and targeting androgen/AR may help in treatment and management of immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiann-Jyh Lai
- George Whipple Laboratory for Cancer Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, USA
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Dillon S, Aggarwal R, Harding JW, Li LJ, Weissman MH, Li S, Cavett JW, Sevier ST, Ojwang JW, D'Souza A, Harley JB, Scofield RH. Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY) among men with systemic lupus erythematosus. Acta Paediatr 2011; 100:819-23. [PMID: 21375582 PMCID: PMC7304292 DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2011.02185.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM To determine the rate of Klinefelter's syndrome among men with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and to determine whether the manifestations of SLE in these men are different from that seen in 46,XY men. METHODS A total of 276 men with SLE underwent a real-time PCR procedure to screen for more than one X chromosome. Those with results consistent with two X chromosomes were further characterized by karyotype and FISH. Clinical manifestations of SLE were determined by interview, questionnaire and medical chart review. Each man with Klinefelter's and SLE was matched to four 46,XY men with SLE. Rates of SLE manifestations were compared with chi-square analyses. RESULTS We found seven of the 286 men with SLE had Klinefelter's syndrome. Four of these seven were nonmosaic 47,XXY, while two were mosaic 46,XY/47,XXY and one was 46,XX/47,XXY. The men with 47,XXY did not have severe manifestations of SLE including no proliferative renal disease, neurological disease, thrombocytopenia, autoimmune haemolytic anaemia, discoid skin disease or anti-RNP/Sm. CONCLUSION 47,XXY is found in excess among men with SLE. Men commonly have SLE that is more severe than that found among women, but the 47,XXY men had less severe SLE than other men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Skyler Dillon
- Department of Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
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Tessnow AH, Olsen NJ, Kovacs WJ. Expression of humoral autoimmunity is related to androgen receptor CAG repeat length in men with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Immunol 2011; 31:567-73. [PMID: 21445561 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-011-9519-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2011] [Accepted: 03/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We sought to explore whether inherited differences in androgen sensitivity conferred by variation in the length of a CAG repeat in exon 1 of the androgen receptor gene could be correlated with differing manifestations of humoral autoimmunity in men with lupus. In a sample of 15 men with lupus, AR CAG repeat length was linearly correlated with levels of antibodies against extractable nuclear antigens and with the number of diagnostic criteria for lupus. Protein microarrays were used to assess levels of 86 different IgG and IgM autoantibodies in the sera of these patients. IgG autoantibodies were more frequently observed in male lupus patients with longer AR CAG repeat length (>23), while IgM autoantibodies were more prevalent in subjects with shorter CAG repeat length (≤23). These data support a potential role for androgen signaling in the modulation of immunoglobulin class switching processes, with consequent impact on the autoimmune phenotype in men with lupus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex H Tessnow
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
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18
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Juvenile Systemic Lupus Erythematosus associated with Klinefelter's syndrome: A case report. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 6:212-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reuma.2009.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2009] [Revised: 08/08/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
The article summarizes reports on the concurrence of Klinefelter's syndrome (KS) with inflammatory rheumatic diseases, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), juvenile idiopathic arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, polymyositis/dermatomyositis, systemic lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis, mixed connective tissue disease, the antiphospholipid syndrome, and ankylosing spondylitis. These include two case reports of patients with KS concurrently associated with RA or antisynthetase syndrome, respectively, previously reported by the author and his coworkers. Attention is paid to the pathogenesis and the course of the disease in patients with KS. The importance of early diagnosis of the syndrome, when occurring simultaneously with other diseases of connective tissue, is emphasized.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rovenský
- National Institute of Rheumatic Diseases, Piest'any, Slovakia.
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Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY) in male systemic lupus erythematosus patients: support for the notion of a gene-dose effect from the X chromosome. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 58:2511-7. [PMID: 18668569 DOI: 10.1002/art.23701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 239] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic autoimmune disease that predominantly affects women. Despite isolated reports of patients with coexisting Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY) and SLE, no association of Klinefelter's syndrome with SLE or any other autoimmune disease has been established. The present study was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of Klinefelter's syndrome in a large population of patients with SLE. METHODS Sex chromosome genotyping was performed in 981 SLE patients, of whom 213 were men. A first group of 844 SLE patients from 378 multiplex families and a second group of 137 men with nonfamilial SLE were evaluated. In selected cases, chromosomes were enumerated by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and karyotyping in transformed B cell lines. RESULTS Of 213 men with SLE, 5 had Klinefelter's syndrome (1 in 43). Four of them were heterozygous at X markers, and Klinefelter's syndrome was confirmed by FISH and karyotyping in the fifth. An overall rate of 47,XXY of 235 per 10,000 male SLE patients was found (95% confidence interval 77-539), a dramatic increase over the known prevalence of Klinefelter's syndrome in an unselected population (17 per 10,000 live male births). Asking men with SLE about fertility was highly sensitive (100%) for Klinefelter's syndrome. All 768 women with SLE were heterozygous at X. CONCLUSION The frequency of Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY), often subclinical, is increased in men with SLE by approximately 14-fold compared with its prevalence in men without SLE. Diagnostic vigilance for 47,XXY in male patients with SLE is warranted. These data are the first to show an association of Klinefelter's syndrome with an autoimmune disease found predominantly in women. The risk of SLE in men with Klinefelter's syndrome is predicted to be similar to the risk in normal women with 46,XX and approximately 14-fold higher than in men with 46,XY, consistent with the notion that SLE susceptibility is partly explained by an X chromosome gene-dose effect.
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Pilipović I, Vidić-Danković B, Perisić M, Radojević K, Colić M, Todorović V, Leposavić G. Sexual dimorphism in the catecholamine-containing thymus microenvironment: a role for gonadal hormones. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 195:7-20. [PMID: 18262658 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2007.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2007] [Revised: 12/14/2007] [Accepted: 12/19/2007] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The study was undertaken to explore whether there were: i) apart from neural and circulatory, some other sources of catecholamines (CAs) in rat thymus and ii) gender-specific differences in thymic CA levels, and if so to elucidate the role of sex steroids in this phenomenon. Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity was found in thymocytes and thymic epithelial cells (some of which showed morphological features of nurse cells). The density of CA-synthesizing cells was greater in male than in female rats. Noradrenaline (NA), but not dopamine (DA), was detected in thymocytes. NA and DA levels in thymi, and the NA level in thymocytes, were higher in male rats. To explore the putative role of sex steroids in this dichotomy in the thymi of adult rats gonadectomized (Gx) or sham-Gx at the age of 30 days the density of TH+ cells and CA levels were measured. Gonadectomy abolished sexual dimorphism in the density of thymic TH+ cells (diminishing their density in male rats) and thymic CA levels (the NA levels were reduced in rats of both sexes and also the DA level in male rats). Therefore, it can be assumed that testicular and ovarian hormones control thymic NA and DA levels via different mechanisms. Moreover, in Gx rats, despite the decrease in the overall thymic NA level, an increase in the thymocyte NA level was found indicating that gonadal hormones exert differential effects on the NA level in distinct thymic cellular compartments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Pilipović
- Immunology Research Centre Branislav Janković, Institute of Immunology and Virology Torlak, Belgrade, Serbia
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22
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Abstract
The production, differentiation, and presence of male gametes represent inimitable challenges to the immune system, as they are unique to the body and appear long after the maturation of the immune system and formation of systemic self-tolerance. Known to protect germ cells and foreign tissue grafts from autoimmune attack, the 'immune privilege' of the testis was originally, and somewhat simplistically, attributed to the existence of the blood-testis barrier. Recent research has shown a previously unknown level of complexity with a multitude of factors, both physical and immunological, necessary for the establishment and maintenance of the immunotolerance in the testis. Besides the blood-testis barrier and a diminished capability of the large testicular resident macrophage population to mount an inflammatory response, it is the constitutive expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines in the testis by immune and particularly somatic cells, that represents an essential element for local immunosuppression. The role of androgens in testicular immune regulation has long been underestimated; yet, accumulating evidence now shows that they orchestrate the inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine expression and shift cytokine balance toward a tolerogenic environment. Furthermore, the role of the testicular dendritic cells in suppressing antigen-specific immunity and T-lymphocyte activation is discussed. Finally, the active role mast cells play in the induction and amplification of immune responses, both in infertile humans and in experimental models, highlights the importance of preventing mast cell activation to maintain the immune-privileged status of the testis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Fijak
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells are present within the bone marrow cavity and serve as a reservoir for the continuous renewal of various mesenchymal tissues. Recent studies suggest that mesenchymal stem cells modulate immune reactions in vitro and escape from immune surveillance in vivo. We provide herein a discussion of issues including the current research progress on the in vitro interactions of mesenchymal stem cells with multiple subsets of immune cells (dendritic cells, T cells, B cells and NK cells), in vivo transplantation outcomes, the possible underlying mechanisms, future research directions as well as potential clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Chen
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Musgrave Park Hospital, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK
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Chagnon P, Schneider R, Hébert J, Fortin PR, Provost S, Belisle C, Gingras M, Bolduc V, Perreault C, Silverman E, Busque L. Identification and characterization of an Xp22.33;Yp11.2 translocation causing a triplication of several genes of the pseudoautosomal region 1 in an XX male patient with severe systemic lupus erythematosus. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 54:1270-8. [PMID: 16575839 DOI: 10.1002/art.21733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The X;Y translocation break point sequence in an XX male patient with prepubertal systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was characterized with the intention of identifying a predisposing gene(s) for SLE. Spectral karyotyping of the patient's metaphase chromosomes showed normal autosomes and 2 X chromosomes, one of which displayed a small portion of the Y chromosome. Using a Y chromosome polymerase chain reaction (PCR) walking strategy and inverse PCR, we found that the abnormal recombination occurred between retroviral long terminal repeats located at Xp22.33 (position 0.95 Mb; inside the pseudoautosomal regions) and Yp11.2 (4.20 Mb) downstream of the sex-determining region Y (SRY) gene. The complete DNA sequence of the break point was determined, revealing a partial duplication of the pseudoautosomal region 1 (PAR1) in the derivative X chromosome and causing a partial trisomy of the 12 known genes located between the interleukin-3 receptor alpha (IL3RA; position 1.1 Mb on the X and Y chromosomes) and CD99 (position 2.2 Mb) genes inclusively. All other X chromosome genes were present as 2 copies. Real-time quantitative PCR confirmed the presence of 3 copies of each of the 12 genes in the patient's genomic DNA. We also found that RNA for 1 of the candidate genes was indeed overexpressed in the patient's blood as compared with normal subjects. Taken together, the uniqueness of the translocation, the rarity of severe prepubertal SLE in males, and the presence of SLE in some patients with Klinefelter's syndrome (who have a triplication of the 2 PAR regions) point to a possible relationship between the partial triplication of the PAR1 region and the development of SLE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Chagnon
- University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, and Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Malkin CJ, Pugh PJ, Morris PD, Kerry KE, Jones RD, Jones TH, Channer KS. Testosterone replacement in hypogonadal men with angina improves ischaemic threshold and quality of life. Heart 2004; 90:871-6. [PMID: 15253956 PMCID: PMC1768369 DOI: 10.1136/hrt.2003.021121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low serum testosterone is associated with several cardiovascular risk factors including dyslipidaemia, adverse clotting profiles, obesity, and insulin resistance. Testosterone has been reported to improve symptoms of angina and delay time to ischaemic threshold in unselected men with coronary disease. OBJECTIVE This randomised single blind placebo controlled crossover study compared testosterone replacement therapy (Sustanon 100) with placebo in 10 men with ischaemic heart disease and hypogonadism. RESULTS Baseline total testosterone and bioavailable testosterone were respectively 4.2 (0.5) nmol/l and 1.7 (0.4) nmol/l. After a month of testosterone, delta value analysis between testosterone and placebo phase showed that mean (SD) trough testosterone concentrations increased significantly by 4.8 (6.6) nmol/l (total testosterone) (p = 0.05) and 3.8 (4.5) nmol/l (bioavailable testosterone) (p = 0.025), time to 1 mm ST segment depression assessed by Bruce protocol exercise treadmill testing increased by 74 (54) seconds (p = 0.002), and mood scores assessed with validated questionnaires all improved. Compared with placebo, testosterone therapy was also associated with a significant reduction of total cholesterol and serum tumour necrosis factor alpha with delta values of -0.41 (0.54) mmol/l (p = 0.04) and -1.8 (2.4) pg/ml (p = 0.05) respectively. CONCLUSION Testosterone replacement therapy in hypogonadal men delays time to ischaemia, improves mood, and is associated with potentially beneficial reductions of total cholesterol and serum tumour necrosis factor alpha.
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Malkin
- Department of Cardiology, Royal Hallamshire Hospital, Sheffield S10 2JF, UK
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Abstract
A 54-year-old man of Persian origin presented to our department with a 1-year history of ulcers on the right leg that had been unresponsive to numerous topical treatments, accompanied by lymphedema of the right leg. Medical history included hypergonadotropic hypogonadism, which had not been further investigated. He was treated for 20 years with testosterone IM once monthly, which he stopped a year before the current hospitalization for unclear reasons. The patient reported no congenital lymphedema. Physical examination revealed two deep skin ulcers (Figure 1) on the right leg measuring 10 cm in diameter with raised irregular inflammatory borders and a boggy, necrotic base discharging a purulent hemorrhagic exudate. Bilateral leg pitting edema and right lymphangitis with lymphadenitis were noted. He had low head hair implantment, sparse hair on the body and head, hyperpigmentation on both legs, onychodystrophia of the toenails (mainly the large toe and less prominent on the other toes), which was atrophic lichen-planus-like in appearance and needed no trimming (Figure 2), normal hand nails, oral thrush, and angular cheilitis. Other physical findings were gynecomastia, pectus excavatum, small and firm testicles, long extremities, asymmetrical goiter, systolic murmur 2/6 in left sternal border, and slow and inappropriate behavior. The patient's temperature on admission was 39 degrees C. Blood cultures were negative for bacterial growth. Results of laboratory investigations included hemoglobin (11.2 g/dL), hematocrit (26.8%), normal mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular hemoglobin volume, and red blood cell distribution width (16%). Blood smear showed spherocytes, slight hypochromia, anisocytosis, macrocytosis, and microcytosis. Blood chemistry values were taken for iron (4 micro g/dL [normal range 40-150 micro g/dL]), transferrin (193 mg/dL [normal range 220-400 mg/dL]), ferritin (1128 ng/mL [normal range 14-160 ng/mL]), transferrin saturation (1.5% [normal range 20%-55%]), serum folate (within normal limits), and vitamin B12 (within normal limits). Direct Coombs' test equaled positive 2 + IgG. All these values indicated anemia of chronic diseases combined with hemolytic anemia. Further blood work-up tested antinuclear antibody (positive <1:80 homogeneous pattern), rheumatoid factors (143 IU/mL [positive >8.5 IU/mL]), C-reactive protein (286 mg/L [normal range 0-5 mg/L]), anticardiolipin IgM antibody (9.0 monophosphoryl lipid U/mL [normal range 0-7.00 MPL U/mL]) and antithrombin III activity (135% [normal range 74%-114%]). Results of other blood tests were within normal limits or negative, including lupus anticoagulant, beta2 glycoprotein, anticardiolipin IgG Ab, anti-ss DNA Ab, C3, C4, anti-RO, anti-LA, anti-SC-70, anti-SM Ab, P-ANCA, C-ANCA, TSH, FT4, anti-T microsomal, antithyroglobulin, protein C activity, protein S free, cryoglobulins, serum immunoelectrophoresis, VDRL, hepatitis C antibodies, hepatitis B antigen, and human immunodeficiency virus. Endocrinological work-up examined luteinizing hormone (22.9 mIU/mL [normal range for adult men 0.8-6 mIU/mL]), follicle stimulating hormone (49.7 mIU/mL [normal range for adult men 1-11 mIU/mL]), testosterone (0.24 ng/mL [normal range for adult men 2.5-8.0 ng/mL]), bioavailable testosterone (0.02 ng/mL [normal range for adult men >0.6 ng/mL]), and percent bioavailable test (8.1% [normal value >20%]). These results indicate hypergonadotropic hypogonadism. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 was 6 U (normal value 5-20 U/mL). Karyotyping performed by G-banding technique revealed a 47 XXY karyotype, which is diagnostic of Klinefelter's syndrome. Doppler ultrasound of the leg ulcers disclosed partial thrombus in the distal right femoral vein. X-rays and bone scan displayed osteomyelitis along the right tibia. Histological examination of a 4-mm punch biopsy from the ulcer border revealed hyperkeratosis, acanthosis, hypergranulosis, and mixed inflammatory infiltrate containing eosinophils compatible with chronic ulcer. Multiple vessels were seen, compatible with a healing process. Direct immunofluorescence of the biopsy revealed granular IgM in the dermo-epidermal junction. Indirect immunofluorescence was negative. Thyroid function tests showed normal thyroid stimulating hormone and free throxine4. Multinodular goiter was seen on thyroid scan and ultrasound. Thyroid fine needle aspiration was compatible with multinodular goiter (normal follicular cells, free colloid, macrophages with pigment). IV treatment with amoxicillin-clavulanic acid 1 g t.i.d. was administered for 2 weeks, with a decrease in temperature and normalization of the leukocyte level. Oral antibiotic treatment with amoxicillin-clavulanic acid was continued for 10 more days, followed by 25 days of ciprofloxacin for the osteomyelitis. Local treatment included saline soakings followed by application of Promogran (Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, NJ) and Kaltostat (ConvaTec Ltd., a Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, New York, NY) with slight improvement. At the same time, the patient was treated with warfarin sodium due to deep vein thrombosis under international normalized ratio 2-3. The patient was treated with IM testosterone once monthly for 1 year, which resulted in a reduction in the diameter and depth of the leg ulcers (Figure 3). Blood tests were not performed for follow-up of the immune state.
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McMurray RW, May W. Sex hormones and systemic lupus erythematosus: review and meta-analysis. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 2003; 48:2100-10. [PMID: 12905462 DOI: 10.1002/art.11105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert W McMurray
- G. V. (Sonny) Montgomery Veterans Affairs Hospital, and Division of Rheumatology and Molecular Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA.
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Musabak U, Bolu E, Ozata M, Oktenli C, Sengul A, Inal A, Yesilova Z, Kilciler G, Ozdemir IC, Kocar IH. Gonadotropin treatment restores in vitro interleukin-1beta and tumour necrosis factor-alpha production by stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 132:265-70. [PMID: 12699415 PMCID: PMC1808705 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02141.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, we aimed to investigate the effects of testosterone deficiency and gonadotropin therapy on the in vitro production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) by peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from patients with idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (IHH) in order to elucidate the modulatory role of androgen in cytokine production. Fifteen male patients with untreated IHH and 15 age-matched healthy male subjects were enrolled in the study. Serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), free testosterone (FT), sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), prolactin, and IL-2 and IL-4 levels were also measured. In unstimulated cultures, IL-1beta and TNF-alpha secretion were not significantly different between patient and control groups. However, after stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), secretion of IL-1beta and TNF-alpha was significantly higher in cultures from untreated patients with IHH than in control subjects. Mean FSH, LH and FT levels were significantly lower, whereas SHBG, IL-2 and IL-4 levels were significantly higher in patients with IHH compared than in controls. In patients with IHH, FT negatively affected the serum levels of IL-4 and in vitro secretion of IL-1beta and TNF-alpha. In addition, IL-2 and IL-4 affected the in vitro secretion of IL-1beta in a positive manner. Gonadotropin therapy decreased both TNF-alpha and IL-1beta in PBMCs from patients with IHH. The levels of serum IL-2 and IL-4 were also decreased by therapy. In conclusion, in the present study, gonadotropin treatment restored the in vitro production of IL-1beta and TNF-alpha by PBMCs from patients with IHH, suggesting that androgen modulates proinflammatory cytokine production, at least directly through its effects on PBMCs. It seems probable that this effect plays an important role in the immunosuppressive action of androgens.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Musabak
- Department of Immunology, Gülhane School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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Prasad R, De Silva M. Osteoporosis with underlying connective tissue disease: an unusual case. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2002; 966:474-7. [PMID: 12114306 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04249.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A 44-year-old male was initially seen by dermatologists, who noted an erythematous rash on sun-exposed areas, the back, shoulders, and upper arms. There was associated muscle weakness and significant weight loss. Investigation revealed mildly raised aspartate and alanine transaminases but normal creatine kinase. Inflammatory indices and antinuclear antibodies (ANAs) were normal. Biopsy of the rash was reported as consistent with either dermatomyositis (DM) or acute lupus erythematosus. A diagnosis of DM was made, and prednisolone was given with improvement of the rash but deteriorating myopathy. The patient was referred to the rheumatology department, and further history revealed multiple vertebral fractures after falling from standing height; these had occurred six months prior to starting steroids. Besides smoking he had no other risk factors for osteoporosis. Examination showed normal muscle strength, no muscle tenderness, and no joint abnormality. Repeat muscle enzymes were normal, and ANAs were now 1 : 100, but dsDNA antibodies and extractable nuclear antigens were normal. Investigations for osteoporosis revealed a hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism picture. Further examination indicated scanty pubic and auxiliary hair, small testicles, and mild gynecomastia. He is married, though has no children of his own. The hormonal profile raised the possibility of Klinefelter's syndrome, which was subsequently confirmed with karyotyping of 47 XXY. Hypogonadism has been established as a cause of osteoporosis in males, and in this case would explain the occurrence of fractures in the absence of other major risk factors. Systemic lupus erythematosus has been recognized in association with Klinefelter's syndrome; in view of the normal muscle enzymes, his rash is most likely due to acute discoid lupus with androgen deficiency causing muscle weakness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roopa Prasad
- Department of Rheumatology, Prince Charles Hospital, Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, United Kingdom.
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Olsen NJ, Gu X, Kovacs WJ. Bone marrow stromal cells mediate androgenic suppression of B lymphocyte development. J Clin Invest 2001; 108:1697-704. [PMID: 11733565 PMCID: PMC200984 DOI: 10.1172/jci13183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Castration of normal male mice induces expansion of the bone marrow B cell population, an effect that can be reversed by androgen replacement. We employed in vitro cultures and two in vivo models to investigate whether androgens exert these effects directly on marrow lymphoid precursors or whether actions on marrow stromal elements are required. Immature B cells from normal mouse bone marrow were not responsive to the suppressive effect of androgens unless they were cocultured with marrow stromal cells or with supernatants from androgen-treated stromal cells, suggesting that the androgen effects are exerted through marrow stromal elements by production of a diffusible mediator. Further experiments revealed that bone marrow stromal cells produced TGF-beta in response to dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and neutralization of TGF-beta in the DHT-treated stromal cells reversed the suppressive effects. The stromal cell requirement for androgen-mediated effects was confirmed in vivo by experiments using chimeric animals created by bone marrow transplantation in which androgen receptor expression was restricted to either the stromal or lymphoid cells of the bone marrow. Androgens only affected B cell development in chimeric mice with androgen-sensitive stromal cells. These experiments suggest that effects of androgens on developing B cells are mediated through androgen receptors in bone marrow stromal cells. TGF-beta is a candidate mediator for these hormonal effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- N J Olsen
- Division of Rheumatology and Immunology, Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.
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Olsen NJ, Gu X, Kovacs WJ. Bone marrow stromal cells mediate androgenic suppression of B lymphocyte development. J Clin Invest 2001. [DOI: 10.1172/jci200113183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Masi AT. Neuroendocrine immune mechanisms in rheumatic diseases. An overview and future implications. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2000; 26:1003-17. [PMID: 11084956 DOI: 10.1016/s0889-857x(05)70181-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A new physiopathogenetic paradigm may be proposed for RA and possibly its related systemic rheumatic diseases (i.e., mechanisms whereby multiple risk factors initially perturb the homeostasis of core physiologic components over an extended premorbid phase, which may progress to clinical disease in later decompensated stages). These complex interactive processes are likely to be individualized according to genetic, nongenomic somatic, developmental, behavioral, and environmental influences. Future research promises to further elucidate the roles of neuroendocrine mechanisms in the rheumatic diseases and offers promise for enhanced therapies and possible avenues for disease modification if not eventual prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- A T Masi
- University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Illinois, USA
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Koçar IH, Yesilova Z, Ozata M, Turan M, Sengül A, Ozdemir I. The effect of testosterone replacement treatment on immunological features of patients with Klinefelter's syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol 2000; 121:448-52. [PMID: 10973715 PMCID: PMC1905740 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2000.01329.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the effects of androgen deficiency in the immune system have long been appreciated, little is known about the immunological features of patients with Klinefelter's syndrome (KS). On the other hand, interest in androgens as a possible treatment for some autoimmune diseases is growing. In the present study, some immunological parameters were evaluated in 26 patients with KS prior to androgen replacement treatment (ART) and the results were compared with those in 19 healthy control subjects. Patients were then treated with testosterone for 6 months and the pre- and post-treatment findings were compared. Serum levels of IgG, IgA, IgM, C3c and C4 were measured by nephelometry and lymphocyte subsets and CD4+/CD8+ ratios were examined by flow cytometry. IL-2 and IL-4 levels were measured by ELISA. Pretreatment levels of the serum IgA, IgG, IgM, IL-2 and IL-4 of the patients were higher than those of the controls and were all decreased significantly following ART. The pretreatment absolute numbers and percentages of CD3+, CD4+, CD19+ cells and CD4+/CD8+ ratios of patients with KS were higher than those of the controls and were all decreased with ART. Percentages of CD8+ cells were increased significantly, while C3 and C4 levels were both significantly decreased after ART. It is concluded that the lack of testosterone in patients with KS enhances cellular and humoral immunity and that ART may suppress this.
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Affiliation(s)
- I H Koçar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Gülhane School of Medicine, Ankara Turkey.
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the profile of sex hormones in male patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). METHOD Serum prolactin (PRL), testosterone (T), estradiol (E2), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSII) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels were obtained from 35 males with SLE and compared with 33 age-matched normal controls. RESULTS No significant differences in serum T, E2, PRL levels and E2/T ratio were observed between male SLE patients and controls. However, patients with SLE had significantly higher levels of gonadotrophins (FSH, LH). Five (14%) SLE patients, but none of the controls, had both low testosterone and elevated LH. Hypoandrogenic male SLE patients did not have overt features of hypogonadism but had a higher prevalence of central nervous system disease and scrositis than those with normal androgen levels. Discase flares, on the other hand, were not significantly more frequent in these patients. Although PRL or T levels per se did not correlate with disease activity in our patients, the ratio of PRL to T showed a significant correlation with SLEDAI scores (p = 0.42. P = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS Hypoandrogenism is present in some male patients with SLE and may be relevant in disease pathogenesis. However, whether these hormonal abnormalities are intrinsic to SLE or the consequence of any non-specific chronic disorders cannot be distinguished from the current data. Further studies involving a larger number of subjects and inclusion of other disease controls are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- C C Mok
- Department of Medicine, Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong.
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Simko R, Nagy K, Lombay B, Kiss A, Minik K, Lukacs VH, Vamosi I. Multicentric Castleman disease and systemic lupus erythematosus phenotype in a boy with Klinefelter syndrome: long-term disease stabilization with interferon therapy. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2000; 22:180-3. [PMID: 10779037 DOI: 10.1097/00043426-200003000-00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
An 11-year-old boy with Klinefelter syndrome had Castleman disease (CD) of plasma cell type develop. Nonregulated antibody production mimicked systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection caused significant disease worsening. The patient was treated with a daily dosage of 2 million units/m2 of IFN-alpha. Dramatic clinical improvement and decreasing autoimmune phenomenon were observed. HCV RNA were cleared. Hypergammaglobulinemia did not change. The boy has been living for 8 years with his disease. Plasma cell type CD can mimic collagenosis. Disease worsening is caused by HCV, though it can be reversed with IFN-alpha. Klinefelter syndrome may be a genetic susceptibility factor for CD in some cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Simko
- Department of Pediatrics, Borsod County Teaching Hospital, Miskolc, Hungary
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Ahmed SA, Hissong BD, Verthelyi D, Donner K, Becker K, Karpuzoglu-Sahin E. Gender and risk of autoimmune diseases: possible role of estrogenic compounds. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 1999; 107 Suppl 5:681-6. [PMID: 10502531 PMCID: PMC1566250 DOI: 10.1289/ehp.99107s5681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
A striking common feature of many autoimmune diseases in humans and experimental animals, despite differences in pathology, is that females are highly susceptible to autoimmune conditions compared to males. In several animal models, estrogens promote, whereas androgens abrogate, B-cell-mediated autoimmune diseases. To understand mechanisms by which estrogens regulate autoimmunity, it is first necessary to decipher estrogen effects on the normal immune system. Estrogen treatment of nonautoimmune mice diminished lymphocyte numbers in both developmental and mature lymphoid organs. Estrogen dysregulated T- and B-cell balance by inducing selective T-cell hypoactivity and B-cell hyperactivity. Even though estrogen did not alter the relative percentages of splenic T-cell subsets, splenic lymphocytes had a reduced proliferative response to T-cell stimulants and were refractory to rescue from activation-induced apoptosis compared to cells from placebo-treated mice. In contrast, estrogen induced B-cell hyperactivity (promoted autoantibodies to double-stranded DNA and phospholipids, increased numbers of plasma cells, and increased autoantibody yield per B cell). Note that treatment of normal mice with estrogen can alter T- and B-cell regulation and overcome B-cell tolerance to result in autoimmunity in normal individuals. Could environmental estrogens promote some human autoimmune disorders? Is there a link between environmental estrogens and autoimmune disorders, especially since these disorders are reported possibly more frequently? These provocative questions warrant investigation. Our findings on immunomodulatory effects may serve as a benchmark to examine whether endocrine-disrupting chemicals will have similar immunologic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Ahmed
- Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Diseases, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Blacksburg 24061, USA. USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M D Lockshin
- Barbara Volcker Center for Women and Rheumatic Disease, New York, New York 10021, USA
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Kanda N, Tsuchida T, Tamaki K. Testosterone suppresses anti-DNA antibody production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. ARTHRITIS AND RHEUMATISM 1997; 40:1703-11. [PMID: 9324026 DOI: 10.1002/art.1780400921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study the in vitro effect of testosterone on anti-DNA antibody production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in order to elucidate its regulatory role in SLE. METHODS PBMC from SLE patients were cultured with testosterone. IgG anti-double-stranded DNA (anti-dsDNA) antibody, total IgG, and cytokine activity in the supernatants were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS Testosterone suppressed both IgG anti-dsDNA antibody and total IgG production in PBMC from SLE patients. Antibody production in B cells was also suppressed by testosterone, although the magnitude of its effect on B cells was lower than that on PBMC. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) partially restored the testosterone-induced decrease in antibody levels in PBMC. Testosterone reduced IL-6 production in monocytes. CONCLUSION These results suggest that testosterone may directly suppress anti-DNA antibody production in PBMC from SLE patients by inhibiting B cell hyperactivity and, indirectly, by down-regulating IL-6 production in monocytes. These results support the therapeutic effects of testosterone on SLE.
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