The distally based island superficial sural artery flap: clinical experience with 36 flaps

Treatment of Soft Tissue Defects after Minimally Invasive Plate Osteosynthesis in Fractures of the Distal Tibia: Clinical Results after Reverse Sural Artery Flap

Introduction: Distal tibial fractures make up approximately 3% to 10% of all tibial fractures or about 1% of lower extremity fractures. MIPO is an appropriate procedure and method to achieve stable metal plate fixation and osseointegration by minimizing soft tissue damage and vascular integrity at the fracture site. MIPO to the medial tibia during distal tibial fractures induces skin irritation due to the thickness of the metal plate, which causes discomfort and pain on the medial side of the distal leg, and if severe, complications such as infection and skin defect may occur. The reverse sural flap is a well-researched approach for covering defects in the lower third of the leg, ankle, and foot. Materials and Methods: Among 151 patients with distal tibia fractures who underwent minimally invasive metal plate fixation, soft tissue was injured due to postoperative complications. We treated 13 cases with necrosis and exposed metal plates by retrograde nasogastric artery flap surgery. For these patients, we collected obligatory patient records, radiological data, and wound photographs of the treatment results and complications of reconstructive surgery. Results: In all the cases, flap survival was confirmed at the final outpatient follow-up. The exposed area of the metal plate was well coated, and there was no plate failure due to complete necrosis. Three out of four women complained of aesthetic dissatisfaction because the volume of the tunnel through which the skin mirror passed and the skin plate itself were thick. In two cases, defatting was performed to reduce the thickness of the plate while removing the metal plate. Conclusions: Metal plate exposure after distal tibial fractures have been treated with minimally invasive metal plate fusion and can be successfully treated with retrograde nasogastric artery flaps, and several surgical techniques are used during flap surgery.

Effectiveness of the Reverse Sural Flap in Covering Diabetic Foot Ulcers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: The reverse sural fasciocutaneous flap (RSFCF) has been used with success to cover noncomplicated foot and ankle soft tissue defects. However, there are some controversies when it is used in patients having chronic diabetic foot ulcers. This aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the efficacy of RSFCF in covering diabetic foot and ankle ulcers. Methods: A systematic review was undertaken from MEDLINE, EMBASE, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar. Only diabetic foot and ankle ulcers were accepted for inclusion and all study designs were included. Proximally based flaps, nondiabetic ulcers, and assisted negative pressure therapy were excluded. Suitability for inclusion was assessed by 2 reviewers. The random-effect estimate was reported for the set outcomes whenever high heterogeneity was present. Metaregression analysis was performed to identify independent risk factors for failure. Results: The search identified 33 relevant studies comprising 187 patients and flap interventions; all but 1 were case-series. The weighted outcomes were as follows: (1) the flap healing rate was 93.3% while 6.6% resulted in total necrosis, (2) the rate of partial flap necrosis was 12%, (3) venous congestion was reported in 6.6% of cases, (4) the infection rate was 8.3%, and (5) the donor site morbidity was 4.6%. No association was found between pedicle width or presence of a subcutaneous pedicle tunnel and the primary outcome of total loss. Conclusions: This review demonstrated excellent results of the flap when covering complicated or large diabetic foot and ankle ulcers. When compared to those published in the literature, our results found RSFCF to be relatively less successful in diabetic wounds than in trauma patients but more successful than in those having associated osteomyelitis and those who were treated with random local flaps.

Análise comparativa do tratamento de lesões cutâneas dos membros inferiores com retalho sural versus retalho propeller

Objective  The objective of the present study was to prospectively compare the sural and propeller flaps for soft-tissues coverage of the lower extremity. The following variables were evaluated: incidence of complete or partial flap loss and donor area morbidity (primary closure versus skin graft).

Methods  Prospective and randomized analysis of data collected from all patients presenting with soft tissue defects of the lower third of the leg and heel treated with reverse sural or propeller flaps.

Results  Twenty-four patients aged between 4 and 60 years old were evaluated between 2011 and 2017. Complete coverage was obtained in 22 of the 24 patients (91.6%). Two flaps failed (8.4%). The sural flap, being the most popular option, continues to represent a safe and versatile alternative for skin defects of the lower third of the leg and heel region. Likewise, the propeller flap was a comparable option to treat these challenging defects.

Conclusion  Sural and propeller flaps are good options for soft tissues coverage of the lower extremity, with low complication rates (partial or total flap loss).

Arteriovenous supercharging: A novel approach to improve reliability of the distally based sural flap

Complex soft-tissue defects of the distal third of the leg, foot and ankle with exposed bones/joints, tendons and implants need a flap for their closure. Distally based sural flap is commonly used, but it has a high partial necrosis rate due to venous insufficiency. We addressed this issue with AV supercharging by dorsalis pedis artery with short saphenous vein. Eight patients (seven males, mean age 34.12 years) with post traumatic lower limb defects over heel and foot were included. All flaps survived and healed although four flaps developed superficial partial epidermolysis. Average healing time was 20.12 days. Closure of the AV fistula was not required in any of the patients. At mean follow-up of two months, all patients were ambulatory with well settled flap. Arteriovenous supercharging of distally based sural flap through short saphenous vein improves the distal arterial perfusion in the flap and prevents distal flap necrosis.

Induced Membrane Technique (Masquelet) for Bone Defects in the Distal Tibia, Foot, and Ankle: Systematic Review, Case Presentations, Tips, and Techniques

Bone defects to the distal tibia, foot, and ankle can be challenging to reconstruct. The induced membrane (Masquelet) technique has become an established method of repair for challenging areas of bone loss. It has been applied in acute open fractures, chronic nonunion, osteomyelitis, and gout erosion. This article presents a systematic review of distal tibia, foot, and ankle results using the Masquelet procedure, which should be considered in cases of challenging critical bone loss. Further work is needed to present large studies of the procedure on foot and ankle patients to consolidate current knowledge.

Comparison of the outcomes of adipofascial and two-staged fasciocutaneous reverse sural flap in patients with lower leg trauma

BACKGROUND

Distal one - third trauma of the lower limb is a complex condition to treat. The reverse sural flap is a time tested procedure for reconstruction of such defects especially in patients where free flaps are ruled out due to comorbidities. The purpose of this study is to compare the two modifications of the classical technique of reverse sural flap (adipofascial and fasciocutaneous) which is lacking in the literature.

MATERIAL & METHODS

In this study, the authors conducted a retrospective analysis of 67 patients with lower one-third leg defects reconstructed with either adipofascial reverse sural flap (Group A, n = 37) or two-staged fasciocutaneous reverse sural flap (Group B, n = 30) in a tertiary care hospital in North India between 2015 and 2019. An evaluation of the different flap characteristics of the two variants of the reverse sural flap was done and compared. Mean follow up period was 12 months.

RESULTS

The adipofascial group showed shorter operative time, was a single-stage and with better reach and aesthetic outcome. The complications did not differ except that for the adipofascial group was associated with unstable skin graft over the flap initially which did not require any treatment.

DISCUSSION

Lower one-third defect of the lower limb has been a challenge for reconstructive surgeons all over the world. The goal of reconstruction is a functional lower limb. Although free tissue transfer is the preferred modality of treatment of such cases but it may not be possible in all cases due to various reasons. Reverse sural flap is a very lucrative local option for such reconstructions as it is easy to perform, reliable, low profile and bulk, require minimal facilities with less operative time. Adipofascial flaps represent an extremely useful modification of the reverse sural flap which is quick to perform with minimal donor site morbidity.

CONCLUSION

Adipofascial reverse sural artery flap is a good option for patients with lower limb trauma with the added advantage of being single-stage and with better donor site cosmesis as compared to the fasciocutaneous reverse sural artery flap.

Soft-tissue defects of the Achilles tendon region: Management and reconstructive ladder. Review of the literature

INTRODUCTION

Defects of the Achilles tendon region represent a challenge for reconstructive surgeons. Several options are available but there is still no reconstructive ladder for this specific and tricky area. An up-to-date reconstructive ladder according to local and general conditions is proposed based on our multicentre experience and an extensive review of the English literature on PubMed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

An extensive review of the English literature was performed on PubMed using the following key-words: "Achilles region", "heel", "soft-tissue reconstruction", "flaps", "grafts" and "dermal substitutes".

RESULTS

A total of 69 complete papers were selected, covering the last thirty years' literature. Although most of the studies were based on limited case-series, local and general conditions were always reported. A comprehensive reconstructive ladder of all the available reconstructive techniques for the Achilles region has been created based on our personal multicentre experience and the results of the literature review.

CONCLUSIONS

The reconstructive ladder is a concept that is still a mainstay in plastic surgery and guides decisions in the repair strategy for soft tissue defects. The optimal solution, according to the experience of the surgeon and the wishes of the patient, is the one that implies less sacrifice of the donor site. Perforator flaps should be the first-line option for small-to-moderate defects; the distally-based sural flap is the most reported for moderate-to-large defects of the Achilles region, and free flaps should be reserved mainly for complex and wide reconstructions.

The Reverse Superficial Sural Artery Flap Revisited for Complex Lower Extremity and Foot Reconstruction

Background:

Soft-tissue defects of the distal lower extremity and foot present significant challenges to the reconstructive surgeon. The reverse superficial sural artery flap (RSSAF) is a popular option for many of these difficult wounds. Our initial experience with this flap at multiple institutions resulted in a 50% failure rate, mostly because of critical venous congestion. To overcome this, we have modified our operative technique, which has produced a more reliable flap.

Methods:

All patients reconstructed with an RSSAF between May 2002 and September 2013 were retrospectively reviewed. In response to a high rate of venous congestion in an early group of patients, we adopted a uniform change in operative technique for a late group of patients. A key modification was an increase in pedicle width to at least 4 cm. Outcomes of interest included postoperative complications and limb salvage rate.

Results:

Twenty-seven patients were reconstructed with an RSSAF (n = 12 for early group, n = 15 for late group). Salvage rate in the early group was 50% compared with 93% in the late group (P = 0.02). Postoperative complications (75% vs. 67%, P = 0.70) were similar between groups. Venous congestion that required leech therapy was 42% in the early group (n = 5) and 0% in the late group (P = 0.01).

Conclusions:

Venous congestion greatly impairs the survival of the RSSAF. A pedicle width of at least 4 cm is recommended to maintain venous drainage and preserve flap viability.

Proximally based sural adipose-cutaneous/scar flap in elimination of ulcerous scar soft-tissue defect over the achilles tendon and posterior heel region: a new approach

Scar ulcers that spread over the Achilles tendon and posterior heel disturb patients by causing pain, impeding hygiene, and creating difficulty in finding appropriate shoe wear. As this region undergoes pressure, effective reconstruction is based on the flap use. The most popular flaps currently used are distally based sural fasciocutaneous flap, calcaneal artery skin flap, and free flaps. These flaps, however, are insensate, can create soft-tissue excess, and cause donor site morbidity. Ulcerous soft-tissue defects over Achilles tendon and posterior heel after burns, frost, and trauma were studied and reconstructed in 16 patients, using proximally based sural adipose-cutaneous flap, the anatomy of which was studied on lower extremities of 27 cadavers. Ulcerous soft-tissue defect consists of two parts: ulcer and surrounding pathologic scars that should be excised in one block. Resulting soft-tissue defects with exposed tendon and calcaneal bone varied from 6 to 20 cm in length and 6 cm in width. For such wound resurfacing a flap was developed that was sensate, thin, large, and having steady blood circulation. The flap was harvested from the lower third of the leg and lateral foot, consisting of skin and subcutaneous fat layer (without fascia), including the sural nerve and lesser vein. The blood supply was ensured through peroneal and anterior tibial artery perforators, which formed a vascular net in the flap. In 14 of 16 cases excellent and stable functional and good cosmetic results with acceptable donor site morbidity were achieved. In two patients the distal flap loss took place because of arteriitis obliterans (one case) and because of the cross-cutting of the sural nerve and vessels during previous surgeries (another case). Proximally based sural adipose-cutaneous/scar flap is the only flap that satisfies all requirements for Achilles tendon and posterior heel region resurfacing. The author believes that this technique, based on this flap use, is anatomically justified, clinically profitable, and should be considered as the first choice operation.

Risk factors associated with complications in lower-extremity reconstruction with the distally based sural flap: a systematic review and pooled analysis

The distally based sural fasciocutaneous flap is one of the few options available for local flap reconstruction of soft-tissue defects in the lower one-third of the leg. Few studies have assessed risk factors associated with poor outcomes in this flap. A literature search was performed of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and the Cochrane Library for articles evaluating the use of sural artery fasciocutaneous flaps for soft-tissue reconstruction of the leg. Data were pooled and a univariate analysis was performed to identify characteristics associated with increased morbidity. A logistic regression model was created, and odds ratios and p values associated with the development of complications were calculated. Sixty-one papers were identified which included data on 907 patients. The majority of sural flaps were used to cover defects of the heel (28.2%), foot (14.4%) or ankle (25.8%). Trauma was the most common indication, followed by ulcers and open fractures. Flap complications were recorded in 26.4% of cases with a flap loss rate of 3.2%. With multivariate analysis, venous insufficiency and increasing age were independent risk factors for complications. Patients with venous insufficiency had nine times the risk of developing a complication compared to patients without venous insufficiency.

Modified distally based sural adipofascial flap for reconstructing of leg and ankle

BACKGROUND

While free flaps can be used in many cases to cover soft tissue defects in the distal leg and ankle in a single stage, factors such as diabetes and advanced age can interfere with success of vascular anastomoses.

METHODS

Twenty-five patients with deep tissue exposure of the distal leg and ankle underwent reconstruction with a modified reverse sural adipofascial flap. Seventeen cases were due to trauma (13 due to high velocity trauma). All 17 had anterior tibial soft tissue defects without significant rear calf soft tissue injury. Eight patients had iatrogenic soft tissue defects due to orthopaedic surgeries for fractures. The flap is raised through two small incisions (3-5 cm) in the posterior aspect of the leg and the subcutaneous fat is split such that some is preserved with the skin. Once the flap is in place, it is covered by a full-thickness skin graft and the donor site is closed primarily.

RESULTS

Twenty-one flaps survived. Four had partial loss of the skin graft on the flap, which healed spontaneously without secondary resurfacing. Anatomic contour was obtained in the recipient sites of all 25 patients. All donor sites healed primarily with the preservation of protective sensation in the calf and acceptable aesthetic appearance. Numbness in the lateral dorsal foot improved gradually and only minor residual numbness was noted at 1 year postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

The modified reverse sural adipofascial flap preserved the sensation of the donor site and the anatomic contour of both recipient and donor sites.

Sural nerve preservation in reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap-a case report

Background

The reverse sural artery flap is a generally accepted means of soft tissue reconstruction for defects of the distal third of the legs. The routine sacrifice of the sural nerve with its consequential temporary loss of sensation on the lateral aspect of the foot can be of concern to early rehabilitation of some patients.

Method

This is a case report of a 24 years old male who had Gustillo and Anderson type IIIB injury involving the upper part of the distal 3^rd and the middle 3^rd of tibia. A reverse sural artery flap was raised without transecting the sural nerve to cover the distal part of the defect.

Result

The distal part of the exposed bone was covered with the reverse sural artery flap without loss of sensation at anytime to the lateral part of the foot.

Conclusion

The reverse sural artery flap can be raised to cover the upper portion of the distal leg without severing the sural nerve.

Reverse peroneal artery flap for large defects of ankle and foot: A reliable reconstructive technique

Background:

Large soft tissue defects around the lower third of the leg, ankle and foot always have been challenging to reconstruct. Reverse sural flaps have been used for this problem with variable success. Free tissue transfer has revolutionised management of these problem wounds in selected cases.

Materials and Methods:

Twenty-two patients with large defects around the lower third of the leg, ankle and foot underwent reconstruction with reverse peroneal artery flap (RPAF) over a period of 7 years. The mean age of these patients was 41.2 years.

Results:

Of the 22 flaps, 21 showed complete survival without even marginal necrosis. One flap failed, where atherosclerotic occlusion of peroneal artery was evident on the table. Few patients had minor donor site problems that settled with conservative management.

Conclusions:

RPAF is a very reliable flap for the coverage of large soft tissue defects of the heel, sole and dorsum of foot. This flap adds versatility in planning and execution of this extended reverse sural flap.

Increasing versatility of the distally based sural flap

Repairing distal lower limb soft tissue defects remains challenging for reconstructive surgeons. Relatively few procedures have real efficiency and low morbidity. Since its initial description, the distally based sural flap has been used increasingly for this indication. However, controversy exists about the upper limit of the skin paddle of the sural flap. In the present series, 11 patients underwent surgery with distally based sural flaps. In 6 patients, the flap skin paddle was partially or totally placed beyond this controversial limit on the proximal calf region. To increase the skin irrigation of this region, whole mesenteric tissue under the deep fascia of the leg was included in the flap. Venous congestion and distal tip necrosis can impair the success of flap surgery. To overcome these problems, the flap pedicle was not passed through the subcutaneous tunnel. All flaps survived completely, and no cases of venous congestion developed. Thus, extending the donor area to the upper part of the leg is a reliable maneuver to repair more distal defects of the leg and foot, and abstaining from passing the pedicle through a subcutaneous tunnel could contribute to a decreased risk of venous congestion.

Delayed reverse sural flap for cover of heel defect in a patient with associated vascular injury. A case report

The delay reverse sural neurofasciocutaneous flap is used to reconstruct soft tissue defects in the lower third of the leg to improve outcome in patients with associated comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, smokers and ischaemic heart disease. The author reports the use of a delayed reverse sural flap as soft tissue cover for a calcaneal defect in a patient with associated comorbidities who has an ipsilateral Gred 3C (Gustilo) tibial fracture after vascular reconstruction.

Ankle dorsiflexion postburn scar contractures: anatomy and reconstructive techniques

BACKGROUND

Postburn ankle scar contractures cause functional limitations of all lower extremities and create a serious cosmetic defect, not allowing patients to use normal foot wear, and, therefore, needing surgical reconstruction. The anatomic features of ankle dorsiflexion contractures and their treatment have been covered in the literature far less than other joint contractures, and their treatment is still a challenge for many surgeons. A common treatment method is incisional release of the contracture and defect resurfacing with skin graft. Rarely, distally based sural or free flaps and Ilizarov fixator are used.

METHODS

Anatomy of postburn ankle scar contractures in 55 patients was studied and contractures were surgically treated using a specific approach and technique. Follow-up results were observed from 6 months to 16 years.

RESULTS

According to the anatomic features, dorsiflexion scar contractures were divided into three types: edge, medial, and total. Edge contractures were caused by burns and scars located on the lateral or medial ankle surface and were characterized by the presence of the fold along the anterior edge ankle; the skin of the anterior ankle surface was not injured. Medial contractures were caused by scars located on the anterior ankle surface and were characterized by the presence of the fold along the medial ankle line. Total contractures were caused by scars tightly surrounding the ankle. In fold's sheets of edge and medial contractures there is a trapeze-shaped surface deficit in length (cause of contracture) and a surface surplus in width which allows contracture release with local trapezoid flaps. For total contractures, wide scar excision and skin grafting were indicated.

CONCLUSION

Three anatomic types of ankle dorsiflexion scar contractures were identified: edge, medial, and total. An anatomically justified technique for edge and medial contractures is trapeze-flap plasty; total contractures are effectively eliminated with scar excision and skin grafting.

Distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap for forefoot coverage

The authors describe their experience with the use of the distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap for distal foot coverage. Ten patients underwent reconstruction with 13 flaps between 2004 and 2008. One patient suffered from a traffic accident and 9 from electrical injury. All of the soft tissue defects resulted in metatarsophalangeal joint and phalanx bone exposure. The size of the flaps ranged from 6 × 2 cm to 11 × 6 cm. The flaps were elevated based on intermediate or medial dorsal pedal nerves. Nine flaps were harvested in first stage to repair the distal foot. Among them, 3 showed partial necrosis in the distal region because of venous insufficiency. Four flaps underwent a surgical delay procedure in the first stage and were then transferred to reconstruct phalanx wounds in the second stage, surviving completely. All patients were satisfied with their reconstruction and donor site contour. The distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap can be used to repair the distal foot soft tissue defects, providing sufficient skin territory and excellent aesthetic and functional recovery. Surgical delay effectively enhances the distally based dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap survival, particularly for the large size flaps.

The use of a reverse flow sural fasciocutaneous flap in a patient with multiple trauma: a case report

Provision of soft-tissue coverage for defects in the distal leg and foot is a challenge, especially in patients with multiple injuries and major soft-tissue defects. Major flap reconstruction requires expertise and the results are variable, with high morbidity. We report a case in which a reverse flow sural fasciocutaneous flap was used for treatment of an open fracture-dislocation of the right ankle after repeated debridement in a 64-year-old man with a history of chronic smoking, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension.

Surgical management of diabetic foot infections and amputations

The incidence of diabetes with severe foot infections (eg, necrotizing fasciitis, gas gangrene, ascending cellulitis, infection with systemic toxicity or metabolic instability) has risen significantly during the past decade. Foot infections are a major cause of hospitalization and subsequent lower extremity amputation among patients with diabetes mellitus who have a history of a preexisting ulceration. Surgical management often is required to address severe diabetic foot infections because they can be limb- or life-threatening. Critical limb ischemia, neuropathy, and an immunocompromised host, which often are associated with diabetic foot infections, complicate treatment and are associated with a poorer prognosis.

Plastic surgery reconstruction of the diabetic foot

Soft tissue reconstruction of the diabetic foot is a challenge for the perioperative team. Primary closure may not be an option and secondary healing may not be reliable. Therefore, surgery is vital and should be coordinated among a well-functioning multidisciplinary team that specializes in caring for patients with diabetes mellitus. Team members must have expertise in reconstructive surgery to ensure adequate wound healing. This article emphasizes the appropriate timing and staging of surgery, discusses the most common plastic surgery techniques, and underscores the importance of a team approach in the management of diabetic foot wounds.

Innovative techniques in preventing and salvaging neurovascular pedicle flaps in reconstructive foot and ankle surgery

Pedicle flaps to cover soft tissue defects of the foot, ankle, and lower extremity are invaluable. However, venous congestion and flap necrosis, a common complication, poses greater morbidity to the patient as few remaining options for attempted limb salvage remain. The authors discuss how to prevent flap failure by allowing close observation and strict offloading of the pedicle flap through current external fixation designs. This article also discusses the role of medicinal leeches in reestablishing blood flow through the pedicle flap to prevent tissue necrosis. In addition, the use of hydrosurgery as an innovative technique offers the surgeon another option if faced with pedicle flap necrosis.

The Distally Based Sural Musculoneurocutaneous Flap for Treatment of Distal Tibial Osteomyelitis

BACKGROUND

The treatment of distal tibial osteomyelitis represents a challenge for orthopedic and plastic surgeons. The affected tissues should be debrided and good vascularized tissue should cover the defect, but the option of a muscle flap covering the area is limited. Free flaps are used but require longer operating time and experience with microsurgery, may result in donor-site morbidity, and sometimes add bulky tissue to the area. The authors present their experience with a sural musculoneurocutaneous flap for the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis of the distal tibia.

METHODS

Over a 2-year period, nine distally based sural musculoneurocutaneous flaps were used in the treatment of chronic osteomyelitis of the distal tibia. Four patients had comorbid conditions (smoking, diabetes mellitus, venous insufficiency, or obesity). The clinical aspect was represented by drainage sinuses located in the distal part of the tibia. Five patients had postsurgical scars on the lateral malleolar region and one had medial and lateral malleolar scarring. Three patients had an Ilizarov device at the time of wound coverage.

RESULTS

All wounds were closed successfully. Dehiscence surrounding the flap was encountered in a single case that was attributable to inadequate bone debridement; this flap was raised to allow extending the debridement, and a local medial fasciocutaneous flap completed wound coverage. Distal tip necrosis of the flap was encountered in two cases.

CONCLUSIONS

The sural musculoneurocutaneous sural flap was successfully used for treatment of distal tibia osteomyelitis. Although it is believed that lateral malleolar scars might compromise the flap, the flaps in the authors' series survived. This flap can also be applied to patients with external fixators without removing the apparatus.

The Distally Based Sural Flap

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this article, the participant should be able to: (1) Describe the anatomy of the posterior lower leg as it is relevant to the distally based sural flap. (2) Describe the basic surgical technique of the distally based sural fasciocutaneous flap. (3) Understand the common complications associated with the sural flap and their approximate incidences in both a healthy and a multimorbid patient population. (4) Describe how skin, fascia, and muscle can be used to customize the sural flap for different purposes. (5) Understand the various modifications of the sural flap that have been described in the literature.

SUMMARY

Over the past decade, the distally based sural flap has become increasingly used in reconstruction of the foot and lower leg. The rise in popularity of this flap has been paralleled by an increase in the number of cases, innovations, and technical refinements reported in the medical literature. This review summarizes the 79 publications in the English language literature on the subject of the distally based sural flap. The anatomical studies are summarized in a unified description of the relevant flap anatomy. The flap's indications and composition and a variety of modifications are described. Technical aspects are discussed and clinical insight to minimize complications is provided. In conclusion, the distally based sural flap offers an alternative to free tissue transfer for reconstruction of the lower extremity.

The Versatility of the Distally Based Peroneus Brevis Muscle Flap in Reconstructive Surgery of the Foot and Lower Leg

Soft tissue and bone defects of the lower leg, ankle, and heel region often require coverage by local or distant flaps. The authors successfully used the distally based peroneus brevis muscle flap for the treatment of 15 patients with osteomyelitis (n = 5), melanoma (n = 1), Achilles tendon defects (n = 6), posttraumatic bone defects (n = 2), and chronic diabetic heel ulcer (n = 1). The size of the defects ranged from 6 to 60 cm. All defects were covered successfully without major complications by the muscle flap. The distally based peroneus brevis muscle represents a very reliable flap for coverage of small and moderate defects of the medial and lateral malleolus, the Achilles tendon, and the heel area. This flap offers a convincing alternative for covering defects in the distal leg region and is often preferable to the use of free flaps because the surgery is rapidly performed and does not require microsurgical expertise.

The Unstable Posterior Heel Scar

The successful use of the reverse sural artery "adipofascial flap" in the management of unstable posterior heel scars is described in 3 patients. The technique of flap harvesting is described, and its advantages are discussed when compared with the reverse sural artery "fasciocutaneous" flap and other techniques of flap reconstruction.

The distally based sural artery flap for ankle and foot coverage

The sural artery flap is a distally based fasciocutaneous flap that has many advantages to offer for coverage in the foot and ankle area. It has the largest arc of rotation of all the regional flaps and does not require sacrifice of any major artery, and moderate-to-large-sized defects can be covered adequately. The dissection technique is simple, and donor site morbidity is minimal. We report our experience with 17 cases. Age range was from 13 to 56 years. Ten (59%) defects were posttraumatic, 3 (17%) were related to reconstructive surgery of the foot or tendon Achilles', 2 (11%) resulted from tumor resection, and 1 each were from infection and gunshot wound. The smallest flap was 6 x 4 cm and the largest was 15 x 12 cm, with the average size being 11 x 7.5 cm. In 5 cases, the donor site was closed primarily, and in other cases, split-thickness skin graft was needed. The short saphenous vein was included in the pedicle in all cases. There was no incidence of complete flap necrosis. Follow-up ranged from 3 to 30 months. Two cases (12%) developed partial superficial necrosis. In 1 case, there was partial wound dehiscence that needed debridement and repair. Another case had postoperative discharge, which subsided after removal of the calcaneal plate. None of the patients complained of any functional problem related to loss of sensation along the lateral border of the foot. The sural island flap is a reliable, safe, and easy method of providing soft tissue coverage in the area of the foot and ankle.

Reverse sural artery flap for the reconstruction of chronic lower extremity wounds in high-risk patients

Soft tissue defects in patients with chronic comorbidities place these patients at high risk for amputation, even when their underlying problems are controlled. The reverse sural artery flap is an effective technique for closing these defects and saving the limb. We retrospectively reviewed 15 consecutive high-risk patients who underwent a sural artery flap procedure between 2003 and 2005 as a final attempt to prevent having a below-the-knee amputation. All of our patients presented with at least 1 comorbidity, with a majority having multiple. Comorbidities in our patient population consisted primarily of diabetes mellitus with neuropathy, critical limb ischemia, end-stage renal disease, and various cardiomyopathies. All patients presented before surgical intervention with a longstanding history of chronic ulcerations that had failed multiple healing strategies. Ulcerations were located at various regions of the foot and ankle such as the heel, lateral malleolus, medial malleolus, and the lateral midfoot. Of those 15 procedures, three failed completely and two had complete dermal necrosis with viable adipose tissue that healed secondarily. The remaining ten flaps healed primarily. We used negative pressure therapy preoperatively in seven patients and postoperatively in five patients. We obtained a success rate of 80%. The reverse sural artery flap has many advantages over free flaps, which has made it a viable treatment option in chronic ulcerations that have failed conservative attempts.

The distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap for foot reconstruction

Finding appropriate soft-tissue to cover a wound located over the middle or distal portion of the foot can be challenging. A distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap including the sural nerve and a midline cuff of the gastrocnemius muscle can be used for this purpose. This flap is designed on the proximal third of the posterior calf and is nourished in a retrograde manner by the lower peroneal septocutaneous perforators, through the vascular axis of the sural nerve to the musculocutaneous perforators of the gastrocnemius muscle. Between October of 2002 and January of 2004, this flap was applied in nine individuals, including four diabetic patients. The skin defects all resulted from trauma, osteomyelitis or chronic ulcer, and combined with bone or tendon exposure. One flap developed distal necrosis. The other flaps survived fully and provided good contour. In our series, diabetes mellitus seemed not to compromise the vascularity of the flap. The distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap is very useful for lower limb reconstruction, particularly for the foot, because of its long vascular pedicle and the availability of the skin portion of the proximal calf based on direct branches between the musculocutaneous perforators and the neurovascular axis of the sural nerve. This is an important variant of the sural neurocutaneous flap and it appears to be a good alternative to free flaps for resurfacing the foot.

Delayed reverse sural flap for staged reconstruction of the foot and lower leg

BACKGROUND

Soft-tissue defects of the foot and lower leg caused by traumatic injury, tumor ablation, or infection associated with osteomyelitis often require coverage by flaps. One excellent option for reconstruction of these defects is the distally based neurofasciocutaneous sural flap. It allows rapid and reliable coverage of defects from the distal third of the lower leg to the forefoot without significant functional donor-site morbidity. However, the maximal size of the flap is limited by the delicate perfusion of the arterial network associated with the superficial sensory nerve. Delay procedures may increase the reliability of large sural flaps.

METHODS

The authors successfully used delayed sural flaps based on a two-step procedure for the treatment of 11 patients (three women and eight men, age 50.1 +/- 20.0 years) with osteomyelitis (n = 3), melanoma (n = 3), sarcoma (n = 1), squamous cell carcinoma (n = 1), posttraumatic defects (n = 2), and recurrent gouty ulcer (n = 1). The delay period ranged from 7 to 15 days (9.7 +/- 3.1), the length of the flap was from 9 to 19 (14.8 +/- 3.0) cm, and the width of the flap from 7 to 12 (9.2 +/- 1.3) cm. Temporary wound coverage was achieved by vacuum-assisted closure during the delay period.

RESULTS

All defects were covered successfully without major complications.

CONCLUSIONS

The delay procedure positively affects the viability of large sural neurofasciocutaneous flaps. The authors recommend this modification for patients with large defects at the distal third of the lower leg or foot, requiring a two-step surgical approach due to the underlying disease.

Reversed saphenous fasciocutaneous island flap in marjolin's ulcers

BACKGROUND

The reconstruction of the heel represents a challenge due to the limited local soft tissue availability and also due to the special structural and functional characteristics of this region. A great number of possibilities have been described; we represent a new flap for heel reconstruction which is a modified form of sural fasciocutaneous flap.

METHODS

Ten patients (two female and eight male; median age 68 years, range 48-76) underwent reversed saphenous fasciocutaneous island flap after wide excision of heel lesion. The causes of heel lesions in all patients were Squamous Cell Carcinoma on the chronic burn's scar. In this new technique, sural nerve and artery were saved and blood supply to flap is based on lesser saphenous vein. Mean lesion surface was 60 cm(2) (range 30-112 cm(2)).

RESULTS

Epidermolysis and flap discoloration were seen in three patients but treated with intermittent wet dressing and conservative managements. One patient showed partial necrosis in flap circumference which recovered with debridment and skin graft. Total flap necrosis was not seen in any patients. Mean hospital stay was 10 days (range 8-15 days). The mean follow up was 12 months (rang 6-18 months).

CONCLUSION

Reversed saphenous fasciocutaneous island flap is an option for heel reconstruction. In contrast with sural flap, sural nerve and artery are saved.

Distally based sural flap in treatment of chronic venous ulcers

The treatment of venous ulcers of the leg often fails to heal because venous ulcers are mostly associated with severe lipodermatosclerosis. These complicated ulcers may require correction of local hemodynamics, excision of ulcer with surrounding lipodermatosclerotic skin, and replacement of the defect with healthy tissue. We present our experience with the use of the distally based sural flaps for the reconstruction of soft-tissue defects of the distal region of the lower limb in patients with chronic venous ulcer. Between 2001 and 2003, 12 patients with venous ulceration were treated with distally based sural flaps. At operation, the ulcer and its surrounding lipodermatosclerotic skin were excised. The defects after excision ranged from 3 x 3 to 11 x 17 cm. The distally based sural artery flap was inset within the defect. In all patients, the flap survived completely, and in only 1 patient, distal venous congestion was seen and was treated successfully with leeches. There was donor site skin graft loss in 2 patients. Two flaps had minor local complications that healed with local wound care. No recurrent ulcers were identified after average 19.7 months. In conclusion, the distally based sural flaps can be used reliably for treatment of venous ulcers. Our approach in treatment of chronic venous ulcers improves venous hemodynamics and provides local flap alternative that should be considered prior to a free-flap transfer for closure of the defect.

The reverse sural neurocutaneous flap for hindfoot and ankle coverage: experience and review of the literature

Soft-tissue defects about the ankle are common in orthopedic surgery. The wounds usually involve exposed bone or hardware, making skin grafting a poor option. Free tissue transfer remains a mainstay of treatment. Recently, the reverse sural neurocutaneous flap has gained popularity. At our institution, 11 fasciocutaneous flaps have been performed for defects averaging 53cm2. All flaps achieved stable coverage. One patient required repeat skin grafting. Given its reliability, easy dissection, and outpatient capability, this flap should be considered for coverage in this region.

Neurovascular Stalk of the Superficial Sural Flap: Human Fetus Anatomical Study

BACKGROUND

The neurovascular stalk of the superficial sural flap, which is the most frequently used, is composed of the lesser saphenous vein, the sural nerve, and the median superficial sural artery. However, it has many variations. This is very important for its application in the reconstruction of soft-tissue defects. The aim of the authors' research was to detect the presence of the superficial sural blood vessels and to investigate their relationships with the sural nerve and the lesser saphenous vein.

METHODS

The study group consisted of 42 fetal lower extremities. Fetuses were fixed in 10% formalin and their blood vessels were injected with Micropaque solution (barium sulfate).

RESULTS

The median superficial sural artery was detected in 83.3 percent of the cases, whereas the sural nerve and lesser saphenous vein were detected in all cases. The median superficial sural artery was located lateral to the medial cutaneous sural nerve and sural nerve, whereas the lesser saphenous vein was located medially.

CONCLUSIONS

All three superficial sural arteries (medial, median, and lateral) were detected in fetuses with different gestational ages. The median superficial sural artery was the most frequently detected one and had the constant relationship with the other elements of the neurovascular stalk of the superficial sural arteries.

Lower-Limb Reconstruction Utilizing the Reverse Sural Artery Flap???Gastrocnemius Muscle Cuff Technique

The reverse sural artery flap was described in 1992 and has become an acceptable technique of lower-limb reconstruction. In 2001, Al-Qattan introduced the concept of raising the reverse sural artery flap with a gastrocnemius muscle cuff for lower limb reconstruction and used it in 9 cases and noted a dramatic reduction in the ischemic events with this distally based flap technique. In the current paper, 30 consecutive patients with lower-limb defects were operated upon between 2001 and 2004. All patients underwent reconstruction utilizing Al-Qattan's reverse sural artery flap-gastrocnemius muscle cuff technique. The defects were classified into 4 types: open lower and midtibial fractures (n = 9), Achilles tendon defects (n = 6), heel defects exposing the calcaneus (n = 7), and complex ankle and foot defects exposing bone (n = 8). No cases of major vascular compromise were noted. Two diabetic patients had minor complications in the flap: one patient developed mild venous congestion and epidermolysis limited to the distal edge of the flap, and the second patient had a minor delayed wound healing at the most distal part of the flap. Both patients did not require further surgery. No cases of infection, hematoma, or painful neuroma were noted. After a mean follow-up period of 2 years (range 1-4 years), all flaps remained stable and all Achilles tendon repairs remained intact. The results of this series compares favorably with the results of other series in the literature, indicating the versatility and the better blood supply of the reverse sural artery flap when raised with a gastrocnemius muscle cuff. Other technical tips to ensure a successful outcome are also discussed.

Modified distally based sural neuro-veno-fasciocutaneous flap: Anatomical study and clinical applications

The distally based sural neuro-veno-fasciocutaneous flap has been used widely for reconstruction of foot and ankle soft-tissue defects. The distal pivot point of the flap is designed at the lowest septocutaneous perforator from the peroneal artery of the posterolateral septum, which is, on average, 5 cm (4-7 cm) above the lateral malleolus. A longer neuro-veno-adipofascial pedicle would be needed to reversely reach the distal foot defect when the flap is dissected based on this perforating branch, which may result in more trauma in flap elevation and morbidity of the donor site. In this article, we explored new pivot points for this distally based flap in an anatomic study of 30 fresh cadavers. The results showed that the peroneal artery terminates into two branches: the posterior lateral malleolus artery and lateral calcaneal artery. These two branches also send off cutaneous perforators at about 3 and 1 cm above the tip of lateral malleolus, respectively, which can be used as arterial pivot points for the flap. A communicating branch between the lesser saphenous vein and the peroneal venae comitantes was found, accompanied by the perforator of the posterior lateral malleolus artery. This modified, distally based sural flap with lower pivot points was successfully transferred for repair of soft-tissue defects in 21 patients. The size of flaps ranged from 4 x 3 cm to 18 x 12 cm. All flaps survived without complications. Neither arterial ischemia nor venous congestion was noted. In conclusion, the vascular pivot point of a distally based sural flap can be safely designed at 1.5 cm proximal to the tip of the lateral malleolus. This modified flap provides a valuable tool for repair of foot and ankle soft-tissue defects.

Distally based sural island flap for the reconstruction of a large soft tissue defect in an open tibial fracture with occluded anterior and posterior tibial arteries—a case report

To repair a 10 x 16 cm soft tissue defect of right lower leg that accompanied with occluded anterior and posterior tibial arteries in a 30-year-old man who sustained comminuted type III(B) Gustilo open tibial and fibular fracture, we present a successful reconstruction by using a large distally based sural island flap perfused by the lowermost perforator of the peroneal artery. This flap is a useful alternative for distal extremity reconstruction when anterior and posterior tibial arteries are occluded, as large flaps can be elevated safely based on only one peroneal perforator.

Distally Based Sural Fasciomusculocutaneous Flap for Chronic Calcaneal Osteomyelitis in Diabetic Patients

Chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis is a difficult surgical problem, especially in diabetic patients. After aggressive surgical eradication of nonviable soft tissue and infected bone, there will be a large soft-tissue and bony defect. A distally based sural fasciomusculocutaneous flap including the sural nerve and a midline cuff of the gastrocnemius muscle can be useful for covering the defect. This flap is designed on the proximal half of the posterior calf and has an adequate blood supply derived from retrograde perfusion of the vascular axis of the sural nerve to the musculocutaneous perforators of the gastrocnemius muscle. The patency of the peroneal artery should be confirmed by Doppler ultrasound or angiography before surgery. If there are any vascular problems, this flap will not be used to avoid complications resulting from poor flap circulation. This approach has been used for 11 diabetic patients in the past 2 years. All flaps survived completely and all wounds healed uneventfully. The authors found that the flap was reliable and technically simple to design and execute. This 1-stage procedure not only preserves the major arteries of the injured leg but has also proved valuable for filling bony defect and treating bony infection because it provides a well-vascularized muscle fragment. Compared with other tissue transfers, this flap has special characteristics for use on diabetic patients with chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis.