The Role of Disability in Explaining Long-Term Care Utilization

Exploring Early, Middle, and Late Loss in Basic Activities of Daily Living among Nursing Home Residents: A Multicenter Observational Study

Nursing home (NH) residents commonly face limitations in basic activities of daily living (BADLs), following a hierarchical decline. Understanding this hierarchy is crucial for personalized care. This study explores factors associated with early, middle, and late loss in BADLs among NH residents. A multicenter cross-sectional study was conducted in 30 NHs in Catalonia, Spain. Dependent variables were related to limitations in BADLs: early loss (self-care-related BADLs: personal hygiene, dressing, or bathing), middle loss (mobility-related BADLs: walking or wheelchair handling, toileting, and transferring), and late loss (eating). Independent variables were based on a comprehensive geriatric assessment and institutional factors. Logistic regression was used for the multivariate analyses. The study included 671 older adults. Early loss in BADLs was significantly associated with urinary incontinence, cognitive impairment, and falls. Middle loss in BADLs was linked to fecal incontinence, urinary incontinence, ulcers, and cognitive impairment. Late loss in BADLs was associated with fecal incontinence, the NH not owning a kitchen, neurological disease, cognitive impairment, dysphagia, polypharmacy, and weight loss. These findings highlight the need to address geriatric syndromes, especially cognitive impairment and bladder/bowel incontinence. Monitoring these syndromes could effectively anticipate care dependency. The presence of kitchens in NHs may help to address limitations to eating, allowing for potential personalized meal adaptation.

Luxury or normal goods? Evidence from the utilization of institutional care services for the disabled older adults in China

Background

Nursing care is essential for older adults with disabilities. Income plays a crucial role in determining the utilization of institutional care services. Pension benefit, as the main source of income for the older adults in China's cities and towns in their later years, is an important factor influencing the utilization of institutional care services. However, there have been no consistent findings on how pension benefits affect the utilization of institutional care services for the disabled older adults.

Methods

This paper utilizes data from the 2017-2018 Chinese Longitudinal Healthy Longevity Survey. We select disabled older adults aged 65 and older, living in towns and cities, and use a probit regression model to investigate the impact of pension benefits on the utilization of institutional care services by urban disabled older adults empirically.

Results

The study shows that a 1% increase in pension benefits raises the probability that the urban disabled older adults use institutional care services by 0.03. It also finds that for low-income urban disabled older adults, the effect is statistically significantly positive at the 1% level; but for high-income urban disabled older adults, the effect is not statistically significant. The pension benefits significantly increase the probability for the disabled older adults who are male, financially dependent, and live in townships. In addition, the pension benefits significantly reduce the probability that children will provide care and pay for care services for their older parents.

Conclusion

Institutional care service is a normal good for the urban disabled older adults, especially for low-income older adults. Therefore, higher pension benefit raises the probability of utilizing institutional care services for the urban older adults with disabilities, and this positive effect is especially pronounced for older adults who are male, financially dependent, and reside in townships. In addition, increase in the pension benefits for the disabled older adults in towns and cities reduces the burden on children by reducing the probability that children will provide care and pay for care services for the older adults.

Utilization of Long-Term Care Services and the Role of Institutional Trust in South Korea

With population aging, governments have become increasingly involved in the administration, funding, and regulation of formal long-term care (LTC) systems. We examine the association between institutional trust and formal LTC service utilization among older adults aged ≥60 years with care needs in South Korea's public LTC scheme. Using data from the Korean Longitudinal Study of Aging and hierarchical logistic regressions, we evaluate the respective roles of trust in government and trust in the LTC program on service utilization. Results show that trust in the LTC scheme is significantly associated with service utilization: a unit increase in the level of trust is associated with a 29% increase in the odds of service use on average, controlling for need-related factors (e.g., chronic conditions) and other covariates. Furthermore, the positive relationship between trust and LTC utilization increases in magnitude with age. Older adults who are aged 80 and above, unmarried, with more ADL limitations, with psychiatric disease, or with arthritis are more likely to utilize formal LTC services. Our findings are robust to variations in sample inclusion criteria. Policymakers and health administrators should pay attention to building and maintaining institutional trust in public LTC schemes through good governance and other relevant strategies.

Predictors of long-term care use - informal home care recipients versus private and public facilities residents in Poland

BACKGROUND

The population aging, together with the shrinking caring potential of families, is a major challenge for social policy in the coming years. The aim of the study is to identify the factors that determine not only the use of long-term care (LTC) but also the selection of individual types of such care in Poland.

METHODS

Using unique data collected from inpatient LTC facilities in Poland and the Survey on Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) database, we estimate logistic regressions explaining the choice of LTC solution.

RESULTS

Our results suggest that social inequalities play a role in choosing the type of LTC. Better educated people choose private institutions, while people without support network use more often social residential homes. The impact of multimorbidity on choosing different types of inpatient facilities is limited, thus the number of ADL limitations remains a better indicator of long term care utilization.

CONCLUSIONS

The study confirms that social inequalities influence decisions about the choice of LTC. However, multi-morbidity is a predictor of using LTC to a limited extent. The differences in LTC selection determinants between women and men are noticeable.

Well-being right before and after a permanent nursing home admission

Permanent nursing home (NH) admissions are a frequent and major life event aimed at maintaining quality of life in old age. Yet, insights into the impact of a NH admission on well-being are scarce and inconclusive. We evaluate the effect of a NH admission on domains of well-being among those who are admitted using event study methodology for cross-sections combined with inverse probability weighting. We apply this doubly robust approach to Dutch survey data on well-being linked to extensive administrative data on NH admissions, health, and socio-economic status. We find that a NH admission leads to a temporary increase in loneliness, the risk of anxiety and depression, and a loss of control over one's life. However, these scores revert to pre-admission levels after 6 months. These findings may contribute to better-informed individual-level and policy decisions about potential NH entry and aging in place policies.

More than a roof; challenges for older women renters in British Columbia, Canada

The growing issue of housing affordability is an increasing challenge worldwide as the financialization of housing markets undermines housing as a basic human right. One of the most vulnerable segments of the population affected by rising housing costs are older, low-income, females. Drawing on qualitative interviews with older women, we explore lived experiences of housing insecurity using a feminist political ecology perspective. Our findings reveal substantial challenges as well as creative solutions being employed by these women to stay in place. We conclude that more targeted and age- and gender-inclusive housing policies, programs, supports and services are critically needed.

Patterns of home- and community-based services in older adults with dementia: an analysis of the long-term care system in Taiwan

Background

Understanding the specific characteristics of the patients with dementia is essential in developing services required to meet their needs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the patterns of use of home- and community-based services (HCBS) by patients with dementia and the factors influencing the utilisation of these services.

Methods

We analysed a dataset of patients with dementia receiving long-term care at a medical centre. All participating patients were required to complete a structured interview form every 6 months to assess their need for service utilisation. Between 2015 and 2018, a total of 822 patients fulfilled the criteria for dementia, and 737 people had assessment records, of whom 244 had used social services. Robust Poisson regression analyses were performed to estimate HCBS usage and the factors influencing service utilisation.

Results

The overall service utilisation rate was 33 %. Most patients used only one service, and assistive devices were used as the main service. Regarding the factors influencing service use, dementia concomitant with dependency increased the use of HCBS. These results suggest that patients with mild dependency might prefer to use community support services, whereas those with moderate to severe dependency being more likely to utilise in-home care services.

Conclusions

This study provides empirical evidence regarding the use of long-term care resources by patients with dementia in the community. Providing customised HCBS, rather than a non-specialised service assumed to be suitable for every patient, is essential for ensuring good patient care. In addition, attention needs to be paid to patients with care needs who do not use HCBS.

Profile of Long-Term Care Recipients Receiving Home and Community-Based Services and the Factors That Influence Utilization in Taiwan

In response to the irreversible aging trend, the Taiwan government has promoted the Long-Term Care (LTC) policy 1.0 launched in 2007 and the LTC policy 2.0 reform since 2016. This study aimed to explore the utilization of formal home and community-based care under LTC policy 1.0 to add scientific support for the on-going LTC policy 2.0 reform. Methods: By using Andersen and Aday’s behavioral model of healthcare utilization, the long-term care dataset was analyzed from 2013 to 2016. A total of 101,457 care recipients were identified after data cleaning. Results: The results revealed that about 40.7% of the care recipients stayed in the care system for more than two years. A common factor influencing the length of home and community-based services (HCBS) utilization period included need factors, where more dependent recipients leave the LTC system regardless of their socio-economic status. However, the utilization period of non-low-income households is significantly affected by the level of service resources. Conclusion: For long-term care needs, the phenomenon of a short utilization period was concerning. This study adds information which suggests policy should reconsider care capacity and quality, especially for moderate to severely dependent recipients. This will allow for better understanding to help maintain care recipients in their own communities to achieve the goal of having an aging in place policy.

Factors contributing to post-stroke health care utilization and costs, secondary results from the life after stroke (LAST) study

BACKGROUND

The result from the Life After Stroke (LAST) study showed that an 18-month follow up program as part of the primary health care, did not improve maintenance of motor function for stroke survivors. In this study we evaluated whether the follow-up program could lead to a reduction in the use of health care compared to standard care. Furthermore, we analyse to what extent differences in health care costs for stroke patients could be explained by individual need factors (such as physical disability, cognitive impairment, age, gender and marital status), and we tested whether a generic health related quality of life (HRQoL) is able to predict the utilisation of health care services for patients post-stroke as well as more disease specific indexes.

METHODS

The Last study was a multicentre, pragmatic, single-blinded, randomized controlled trial. Adults (age ≥ 18 years) with first-ever or recurrent stroke, community dwelling, with modified Rankin Scale < 5. The study included 380 persons recruited 10 to 16 weeks post-stroke, randomly assigned to individualized coaching for 18 months (n = 186) or standard care (n = 194). Individual need was measured by the Motor assessment scale (MAS), Barthel Index, Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), modified Rankin Scale (mRS) and Gait speed. HRQoL was measured by EQ-5D-5 L. Health care costs were estimated for each person based on individual information of health care use. Multivariate regression analysis was used to analyse cost differences between the groups and the relationship between individual costs and determinants of health care utilisation.

RESULTS

There were higher total costs in the intervention group. MAS, Gait speed, HADS and mRS were significant identifiers of costs post-stroke, as was EQ-5D-5 L.

CONCLUSION

Long term, regular individualized coaching did not reduce health care costs compared to standard care. We found that MAS, Gait speed, HADS and mRS were significant predictors for future health care use. The generic EQ-5D-5 L performed equally well as the more detailed battery of outcome measures, suggesting that HRQoL measures may be a simple and efficient way of identifying patients in need of health care after stroke and targeting groups for interventions.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

https://www.clinicaltrials.govNCT01467206. The trial was retrospectively registered after the first 6 participants were included.

Formal home care use by older adults: trajectories and determinants in the Lc65+ cohort

Background

Given the increasing importance of formal home care services in policies dedicated to elder care, there is major interest in studying individuals’ characteristics determining their utilization. The main objective of this research was to quantify, during a 6-year timeframe, home care use trajectories followed by community-dwelling participants in a cohort study of older adults. The secondary objective was to identify factors associated with home care utilization using Andersen’s Behavioural Model of Health Services Use.

Methods

We proceeded to an analysis of data prospectively collected in the setting of the Lc65+ population-based study conducted in Lausanne (Switzerland). Self-reported utilization of professional home care in 2012 and 2018 was used to define trajectories during this timeframe (i.e. non-users, new users, former users and continuing users). Bivariable analyses were performed to compare new users to non-users regarding the three dimensions of Andersen’s model (predisposing, enabling and need factors) measured at baseline. Then, binomial logistic regression was used in a series of two hierarchical models to adjust for need factors first, before adding predisposing and enabling factors in a second model.

Results

Of 2155 participants aged between 69 and 78 in 2012, 82.8% remained non-users in 2018, whereas 11.2% started to use professional home care. There were 3.3% of continuing users and 2.7% of former users. New users exhibited a higher burden of physical and psychological complaints, chronic health conditions and functional limitations at baseline. After adjusting for these need factors, odds of home care utilization were higher only in participants reporting a difficult financial situation (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.12–2.45).

Conclusions

In the setting of a Swiss city, incident utilization of formal home care by older adults appeared to be largely determined by need factors. Modifiable factors like personal beliefs and knowledge about home care services did not play a role. After adjusting for need, odds of becoming home care user remained higher in participants reporting a difficult financial situation, suggesting such vulnerability does not hamper access to professional home care in this specific context.

Access barriers to medical facilities for people with physical disabilities: the case of Peru

People with disabilities (PWD) face several challenges accessing medical services. However, the extent to which architectural and transportation barriers impede access to healthcare is unknown. In Peru, despite laws requiring that buildings be accessible for PWD, no report confirms that medical facilities comply with such regulations. Thus, we aim to provide an association between these barriers and access to medical facilities. Data from a Peruvian disability survey were analyzed. Participants were 18 years of age and older people who reported having a physical disability. Accessibility was defined by reported struggles accessing medical facilities (health or rehabilitation centers). Absence of ramps, handrails, elevators, adapted bathrooms, and information counters in medical facilities were reported as architectural barriers. The transportation barriers analyzed included struggles using buses or trains. Poisson regression models with robust variance were used to estimate prevalence ratios (PR) and to control for confounding variables. 20,663 participants were included, their mean age was 66.5 years and 57.5% were females. Architectural and transportation barriers reported were 40% and 61%, respectively. All barriers reported were more prevalent in rural compared to urban areas (p < 0.001). Inadequacy of ramps, handrails, and adapted elevators and bathrooms were associated with limited use of rehabilitation centers (p < 0.001) but not of health centers (p > 0.05). Architectural and transportation barriers represent a hindrance to seeking treatment at rehabilitation centers. Actions to improve this situation are needed.

Depressive Symptoms and Onset of Functional Disability Over 2 Years: A Prospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

This prospective cohort study examined the relationship between depressive symptoms and onset of functional disability over 2 years among US Chinese older adults, a rapidly growing minority older adult population.

DESIGN AND SETTING

This study used survey data from 2713 Chinese older adults who completed both baseline (2011-2013) and follow-up (2013-2015) interviews of the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago. Depressive symptoms were assessed at baseline by the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Functional disability was measured by three validated scales, Katz Index of Independence in Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), the Lawton Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs) scale, and the Rosow and Breslau mobility scale. Multivariate logistic regression was conducted to examine the relationship between baseline depressive symptoms and the development of functional disability (ADLs, IADLs, mobility) at 2-year follow-up while adjusting for covariates.

RESULTS

Of the 2713 participants, 5.2% experienced ADL disability onset, 35.6% experienced IADL disability onset, and 23.3% experienced mobility disability onset over 2 years. After adjusting for covariates, the odds of ADL disability onset (odds ratio [OR] = 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.02-1.11), IADL disability onset (OR = 1.05; 95% CI = 1.01-1.09), and mobility disability onset (OR = 1.05; 95% CI = 1.01-1.09) were consistently higher in US Chinese older adults with higher levels of depressive symptoms than their less-depressed counterparts. Other significant risk factors included older age and more chronic physical conditions.

CONCLUSION

Study findings underscore a significant relationship between depressive symptoms and onset of functional disability. Screening and, subsequently, treating depressive symptoms have the potential to reduce disability among US Chinese older adults. Culturally relevant depressive symptom screening may help identify Chinese older adults who are at greater risks for the development of functional disability. J Am Geriatr Soc 67:S538-S544, 2019.

Evaluation of bottom-up interventions targeting community-dwelling frail older people in Belgium: methodological challenges and lessons for future comparative effectiveness studies

Background

Optimizing the organization of care for community-dwelling frail older people is an important issue in many Western countries. In Belgium, a series of complex, innovative, bottom-up interventions was recently designed and implemented to help frail older people live at home longer. As the effectiveness of these interventions may vary between different population groups according to their long-term care needs, they must be evaluated by comparison with a control group that has similar needs.

Methods

The goal was to identify target groups for these interventions and to establish control groups with similar needs and to explore, per group, the extent to which the utilization of long-term care is matched to needs. We merged two databases: a clinical prospective database and the routine administrative database for healthcare reimbursements. Through Principal Component Analysis followed by Clustering, the intervention group was first stratified into disability profiles. Per profile, comparable control groups for clinical variables were established, based on propensity scores. Using chi-squared tests and logistic regression analysis, long-term care utilization at baseline was then compared per profile and group studied.

Results

Stratification highlighted five disability profiles: people with low-level limitations; people with limitations in instrumental activities of daily life and low-level of cognitive impairment; people with functional limitations; people with functional and cognitive impairments; and people with functional, cognitive, and behavioral problems. These profiles made it possible to identify long-term care needs. For instance, at baseline, those who needed more assistance with hygiene tasks also received more personal nursing care (P < 0.05). However, there were some important discrepancies between the need for long-term care and its utilization: while 21% of patients who were totally dependent for hygiene tasks received no personal nursing care, personal nursing care was received by 33% of patients who could perform hygiene tasks.

Conclusions

The disability profiles provide information on long-term care needs but not on the extent to which those needs are met. To assess the effectiveness of interventions, controls at baseline should have similar disability profiles and comparable long-term care utilization. To allow for large comparative effectiveness studies, these dimensions should ideally be available in routine databases.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-019-4240-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Nursing home admission after myocardial infarction in the elderly: A nationwide cohort study

Background

Data on nursing home admission after myocardial infarction (MI) in the elderly are scarce. We investigated nursing home admission within 6 months and 2 years after MI including predictors for nursing home admission in a nationwide cohort of elderly patients.

Methods

Using Danish nationwide registries, we identified all subjects 65 years or older residing at home who were discharged following first-time MI in the period 2008–2015. We determined sex- and age-stratified incidence rates per 1000 person years (IRs) and incidence rate ratios (IRRs) of nursing home admissions using Poisson regression models compared to the Danish population 65 years or older with no prior MI. Poisson regression models were also applied to identify predictors of nursing home admission.

Results

The 26,539 patients who were discharged after MI had a median age of 76 (quartile 1-quartile 3: 70–83) years. The IRs of nursing home admission after MI increased with increasing age and for 80-84-year-old women IRs after 6 months and 2 years were 113.9 and 62.9, respectively, compared to 29.4 for women of the same age with no prior MI. The IRs for 80-84-year-old men after MI were 56.0 and 36.2, respectively, compared to 24.3 for men of the same age with no prior MI. In adjusted analyses the 6 months and 2 years IRRs for 80-84-year-old subjects were 2.56 (95% CI 2.11–3.10) and 1.41 (95% CI 1.22–1.65) for women and 1.74 (95% CI 1.34–2.25) and 1.05 (95% CI 0.88–1.26) for men, respectively. Predictors were advanced age, dementia, home care, Parkinson’s disease, cerebrovascular disease, living alone, depression, and arrhythmia.

Conclusion

In elderly patients discharged following first-time MI, the risk of subsequent nursing home admission within 6 months was 2-fold higher compared to an age-stratified population with no prior MI. After 2 years this risk remained higher in women.

Determinants for utilization and transitions of long-term care in adults 65+ in Germany: results from the longitudinal KORA-Age study

BACKGROUND

Societies around the world face the burden of an aging population with a high prevalence of chronic conditions. Thus, the demand for different types of long-term care will increase and change over time. The purpose of this exploratory study was to identify determinants for utilization and transitions of long-term care in adults older than 65 years by using Andersen's Behavioral Model of Health Services Use.

METHODS

The study examined individuals older than 65 years between 2011/2012 (t₁) and 2016 (t₂) from the population-based Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg (KORA)-Age study from Southern Germany. Analyzed determinants consisted of predisposing (age, sex, education), enabling (living arrangement, income) and need (multimorbidity, disability) factors. Generalized estimating equation logistic models were used to identify determinants for utilization and types of long-term care. A logistic regression model examined determinants for transitions to long-term care over four years through a longitudinal analysis.

RESULTS

We analyzed 810 individuals with a mean age of 78.4 years and 24.4% receiving long-term care at t₁. The predisposing factors higher age and female sex, as well as the need factors higher multimorbidity and higher disability score, were determinants for both utilization and transitions of long-term care. Living alone, higher income and a higher disability score had a significant influence on the utilization of formal versus informal long-term care.

CONCLUSION

Our results emphasize that both utilization and transitions of long-term care are influenced by a complex construct of predisposing, enabling and need factors. This knowledge is important to identify at-risk populations and helps policy-makers to anticipate future needs for long-term care.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Not applicable.

Practice variation in the Dutch long-term care and the role of supply-sensitive care: Is access to the Dutch long-term care equitable?

Universal access and generous coverage are important goals of the Dutch long-term care (LTC) system. It is a legal requirement that everyone eligible for LTC should be able to receive it. Institutional care (IC) made up for 90% of Dutch LTC spending. To investigate whether access to IC is as equitable as the Dutch government aspires, we explored practice variation in entitlements to IC across Dutch regions. We used a unique dataset that included all individual applications for Dutch LTC in January 2010-December 2013 (N = 3,373,358). This dataset enabled an accurate identification of the need for care. We examined the local variation in the probability of being granted long-term IC and in the intensity of the care granted given that individuals have applied for LTC. We also investigated whether the variation observed was related to differences in the local availability of care facilities. Although our analyses indicated the presence of some practice variation, its magnitude was very small by national and international standards (up to 3%). Only a minor part of the practice variation could be accounted for by local supply differences in care facilities. Overall, we conclude that, unlike many other developed countries, the Dutch system ensured equitable access to long-term IC.

Determinants of first-time utilization of long-term care services in the Netherlands: an observational record linkage study

Background

Since in an ageing society more long-term care (LTC) facilities are needed, it is important to understand the main determinants of first-time utilization of (LTC) services.

Methods

The Andersen service model, which distinguishes predisposing, enabling and need factors, was used to develop a model for first-time utilization of LTC services among the general population of the Netherlands. We used data on 214,821 persons registered in a database of general practitioners (NIVEL Primary Care Database). For each person the medical history was known, as well as characteristics such as ethnicity, income, home-ownership, and marital status. Utilization data from the national register on long-term care was linked at a personal level. Generalized Linear Models were used to determine the relative importance of factors of incident LTC-service utilization.

Results

Top 5 determinants of LTC are need, measured as the presence of chronic diseases, age, household size, household income and homeownership. When controlling for all other determinants, the presence of an additional chronic disease increases the probability of utilizing any LTC service by 45% among the 20+ population (OR = 1.45, 95% CI: 1.41–1.49), and 31% among the 65+ population (OR = 1.31, 95% CI: 1.27–1.36). With respect to the 20+ population, living in social rent (OR = 2.45, 95% CI = 2.25–2.67, ref. = home-owner) had a large impact on utilizing any LTC service. In a lesser degree this was the case for living alone (OR = 1.63, 95% CI = 1.52–1.75, ref. = not living alone). A higher household income was linked with a lower utilization of any LTC service.

Conclusions

All three factors of the Anderson model, predisposing, enabling, and need determinants influence the likelihood of future LTC service utilization. This implies that none of these factors can be left out of the analysis of what determines this use. New in our analysis is the focus on incident utilization. This provides a better estimate of the effects of predictors than a prevalence based analysis, as there is less confounding by changes in determinants occurring after LTC initiation. Especially the need of care is a strong factor. A policy implication of this relative importance of health status is therefore that LTC reforms should take health aspects into account.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-017-2570-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Disability in long-term care residents explained by prevalent geriatric syndromes, not long-term care home characteristics: a cross-sectional study

Background

Self-care disability is dependence on others to conduct activities of daily living, such as bathing, eating and dressing. Among long-term care residents, self-care disability lowers quality of life and increases health care costs. Understanding the correlates of self-care disability in this population is critical to guide clinical care and ongoing research in Geriatrics. This study examines which resident geriatric syndromes and chronic conditions are associated with residents’ self-care disability and whether these relationships vary across strata of age, sex and cognitive status. It also describes the proportion of variance in residents’ self-care disability that is explained by residents’ geriatric syndromes versus long-term care home characteristics.

Methods

We conducted a cross-sectional study using a health administrative cohort of 77,165 long-term care home residents residing in 614 Ontario long-term care homes. Eligible residents had their self-care disability assessed using the RAI-MDS 2.0 activities of daily living long-form score (range: 0–28) within 90 days of April 1st, 2011. Hierarchical multivariable regression models with random effects for long-term care homes were used to estimate the association between self-care disability and resident geriatric syndromes, chronic conditions and long-term care home characteristics. Differences in findings across strata of sex, age and cognitive status (cognitively intact versus cognitively impaired) were examined.

Results

Geriatric syndromes were much more strongly associated with self-care disability than chronic conditions in multivariable models. The direction and size of some of these effects were different for cognitively impaired versus cognitively intact residents. Residents’ geriatric syndromes explained 50% of the variation in their self-care disability scores, while characteristics of long-term care homes explained an additional 2% of variation.

Conclusion

Differences in long-term care residents’ self-care disability are largely explained by prevalent geriatric syndromes. After adjusting for resident characteristics, there is little variation in self-care disability associated with long-term care home characteristics. This suggests that residents’ geriatric syndromes—not the homes in which they live—may be the appropriate target of interventions to reduce self-care disability, and that such interventions may need to differ for cognitively impaired versus unimpaired residents.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12877-017-0444-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Factors associated with older people's long-term care needs: a case study adopting the expanded version of the Anderson Model in China

Background

Alongside changes in society and the economy, the family’s function of taking care of older people is weakening and the formal care mode is becoming more accepted. Older Chinese people are facing diverse choices of long-term care (LTC) modes. Acknowledging this situation, to optimize older people’s arrangements for LTC services and improve quality of later life, this study sets out to explore and make theoretical sense of older people’s LTC needs and to identify the factors influencing their LTC needs.

Methods

Questionnaire data were collected from 1090 participants in four Chinese cities in 2014. A conceptual framework was established based on the Anderson Model (i.e., predisposing factors, enabling factors, and need factors), and further strengthened by adding several psychosocial factors (i.e. intergenerational relationships, unmet care service needs, and self-image). Multinomial logistic regression was adopted to explore the influencing factors of LTC needs. Participants choosing home-and-community-based care were regarded as the reference group.

Results

After controlling for predisposing, enabling, and need factors, those with better self-image (OR = 1.027, p = 0.021) and fewer unmet care service needs (OR = 0.936, p = 0.009) were identified as being more likely to choose family care; those with less close intergenerational relationships (OR = 0.676, p = 0.019), fewer unmet care service needs (OR = 0.912, p = 0.027), and better self-image (OR = 1.044, p = 0.026) were more likely to choose institutional care. Gender- and age-related differences in the determinants of LTC needs were observed.

Conclusions

The findings of this study suggest that professionals and service providers should pay more attention to the important role of psychosocial factors in affecting older people’s LTC needs and be more sensitive to gender- and age-related differences. Effective efforts to improve intergenerational relationships, to further develop care services for older people, and to foster a more positive image of aging should be emphasized.

Factors associated with the amount of public home care received by elderly and intellectually disabled individuals in a large Norwegian municipality

This study reports an analysis of factors associated with home care use in a setting in which long-term care services are provided within a publicly financed welfare system. We considered two groups of home care recipients: elderly individuals and intellectually disabled individuals. Routinely collected data on users of public home care in the municipality of Trondheim in October 2012, including 2493 people aged 67 years or older and 270 intellectually disabled people, were used. Multivariate regression analysis was used to analyse the relationship between the time spent in direct contact with recipients by public healthcare personnel and perceived individual determinants of home care use (i.e. physical disability, cognitive impairment, diagnoses, age and gender, as well as socioeconomic characteristics). Physical disability and cognitive impairment are routinely registered for long-term care users through a standardised instrument that is used in all Norwegian municipalities. Factor analysis was used to aggregate the individual items into composite variables that were included as need variables. Both physical disability and cognitive impairment were strong predictors of the amount of received care for both elderly and intellectually disabled individuals. Furthermore, we found a negative interaction effect between physical disability and cognitive impairment for elderly home care users. For elderly individuals, we also found significant positive associations between weekly hours of home care and having comorbidity, living alone, living in a service flat and having a safety alarm. The reduction in the amount of care for elderly individuals living with a cohabitant was substantially greater for males than for females. For intellectually disabled individuals, receiving services involuntarily due to severe behavioural problems was a strong predictor of the amount of care received. Our analysis showed that routinely collected data capture important predictors of home care use and thus facilitate both short-term budgeting and long-term planning of home care services.

Differences in predictors of 5-year survival over a 10-year period in two cohorts of elderly nursing home residents in Sweden

AIM

The aim was to compare 5-year survival in two included cohorts (from year 2000 and year 2007) of 249 nursing home residents (NHR) in this retrospective, comparative study.

METHODS

The cohorts were compared regarding chronic diseases, medication, physical/cognitive/nutritional status, body mass index, body temperature and 5-year mortality. Factors correlated with 5-year survival were determined using Cox regression analysis.

RESULTS

In average, cohort 2007 survived 31 ± 16 months and cohort 2000, 38 ± 13 months, p < 0.001. Dementia, ageing and circulatory failure were more common as cause of death 2007, while stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and pneumonia were less common, compared with 2000. NHR belonging to cohort 2007 were significantly older when admitted to nursing homes (NH), more dependent in activities of daily living (ADL), had dementia, stroke, autoimmune disease and treatment with antidepressants, while malnutrition and treatment with paracetamol were more common 2000. In 2000, medication with antidepressants, the presence of stroke and diabetes, irrespective of gender, and in women cardiovascular disease, two to threefold significantly increased survival, while autoimmune disease, influenza vaccination and dependency in ADL decreased survival. In 2007, maintaining BMI, irrespective of gender, and autoimmune disease and COPD in women significantly increased survival, while malnutrition, influenza vaccination, dependency in ADL and medication with sedatives/tranquillisers or paracetamol severely reduced survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results indicate a trend that individuals are older and frailer when admitted to NH and that survival time after admission has been shortened. Hence, the need of daily support and care has increased, irrespective of housing. Also, predictors of survival, possible to influence, have changed.

Community-Based Long-Term Care Services

Objective: This study examines the relationship between caregivers’ perception of community-based long-term care (CBLTC) services and the service use. Method: We used first two waves of the longitudinal data set of 1,416 dyads of care recipients and their caregivers in Singapore. Four perceived attributes of LTC services—service quality, convenience, social connectedness, and affordability—were measured on a 5-point scale. Results: Among the four perceived attributes, perceived affordability was significantly associated with future utilization for all types of CBLTC services. Perceived service quality and convenience was significantly associated with center-based LTC services use. Discussion: Caregivers are critically involved in the decision of using CBLTC services, and their perception of service characteristics is significantly associated with the uptake of CBLTC services. It is important to incorporate both care recipients’ and caregivers’ needs and preferences when designing and promoting integrated health care delivery models.

Going formal or informal, who cares? The influence of public long-term care insurance

International differences in long-term care (LTC) use are well documented, but not well understood. Using comparable data from two countries with universal public LTC insurance, the Netherlands and Germany, we examine how institutional differences relate to differences in the choice for informal and formal LTC. Although the overall LTC utilization rate is similar in both countries, use of formal care is more prevalent in the Netherlands and informal care use in Germany. Decomposition of the between-country differences in formal and informal LTC use reveals that these differences are not chiefly the result of differences in population characteristics but mainly derive from differences in the effects of these characteristics that are associated with between-country institutional differences. These findings demonstrate that system features such as eligibility rules and coverage generosity and, indirectly, social preferences can influence the choice between formal and informal care. Less comprehensive coverage also has equity implications: for the poor, access to formal LTC is more difficult in Germany than in the Netherlands.

Explaining declining rates of institutional LTC use in the Netherlands: a decomposition approach

The use of long-term care (LTC) is changing rapidly. In the Netherlands, rates of institutional LTC use are falling, whereas homecare use is growing. Are these changes attributable to declining disability rates, or has LTC use given disability changed? And have institutionalization rates fallen regardless of disability level, or has LTC use become better tailored to needs? We answer these questions by explaining trends in LTC use for the Dutch 65+ population in the period 2000-2008 using a nonlinear variant of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. We find that changes in LTC use are not due to shifts in the disability distribution but can almost entirely be traced back to changes in the way the system treats disability. Elderly with mild disability are more likely to be treated at home than before, whereas severely disabled individuals continue to receive institutional LTC. As a result, LTC use has become better tailored to the needs for such care. This finding suggests that policies that promote LTC in the community rather than in institutions can effectively mitigate the consequences of population aging on LTC spending.

How work impairments and reduced work ability are associated with health care use in workers with musculoskeletal disorders, cardiovascular disorders or mental disorders

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to explore how work impairments and work ability are associated with health care use by workers with musculoskeletal disorders (MSD), cardiovascular disorders (CVD), or mental disorders (MD).

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, subjects with MSD (n = 2,074), CVD (n = 714), and MD (n = 443) were selected among health care workers in 12 Dutch organizations. Using an online questionnaire, data were collected on individual characteristics, health behaviors, work impairments, work ability, and consultation of a general practitioner (GP), physiotherapist, specialist, or psychologist in the past year. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to explore the associations of work impairments and work ability with health care use.

RESULTS

Lower work ability was associated with a higher likelihood of consulting any health care provider among workers with common disorders (OR 1.05-1.45). Among workers with MSD work impairments increased the likelihood of consulting a GP (OR 1.55), specialist (OR 2.05), and physical therapist (OR 1.98). Among workers with CVD work impairments increased the likelihood of consulting a specialist (OR 1.94) and physical therapist (OR 2.73). Among workers with MD work impairments increased the likelihood of consulting a specialist (OR 1.79) and psychologist (OR 1.82).

CONCLUSION

Work impairments and reduced work ability were associated with health care use among workers with MSD, CVD, or MD. These findings suggest that addressing work-related problems in workers with common disorders may contribute in reducing health care needs.

Variation in the costs of dying and the role of different health services, socio-demographic characteristics, and preceding health care expenses

The health care costs of population ageing are for an important part attributable to higher mortality rates in combination with high costs of dying. This paper answers three questions that remain unanswered regarding the costs of dying: (1) contributions of different health services to the costs of dying; (2) variation in the costs of dying; and (3) the influence of preceding health care expenses on the costs of dying. We retrieved data on 61,495 Dutch subjects aged 65 and older from July 2007 through 2010 from a regional health care insurer. We included all deceased subjects of whom health care expenses were known for 26 months prior to death (n=2833). Costs of dying were defined as health care expenses made in the last six months before death. Lorenz curves, generalized linear models and a two-part model were used for our analyses. (1) The average costs of dying are €25,919. Medical care contributes to 57% of this total, and long-term care 43%. The costs of dying mainly relate to hospital care (40%). (2) In the costs of dying, 75% is attributable to the costliest half of the population. For medical care, this distribution figure is 86%, and for long-term care 92%. Age and preceding expenses are significant determinants of this variation in the costs of dying. (3) Overall, higher preceding health care expenses are associated with higher costs of dying, indicating that the costs of dying are higher for those with a longer patient history. To summarize, there is not a large variation in the costs of dying, but there are large differences in the nature of these costs. Before death, the oldest old utilize more long-term care while their younger counterparts visit hospitals more often. To curb the health care costs of population ageing, a further understanding of the costs of dying is crucial.

Combinations of long-term care insurance services and associated factors in Japan: a classification tree model

BACKGROUND

To develop a quality community-based care management system, it is important to identify the actual use of long-term care insurance (LTCI) services and the most frequent combinations of services. It is also important to determine the factors associated with the use of such combinations.

METHODS

This study was conducted in 10 care management agencies in the urban area around Tokyo, Japan. The assessment and services data of 983 clients using the Minimum Data Set for Home Care were collected from the agencies. We categorized combination patterns of services from descriptive data analysis of service use and conducted chi-squared automatic interaction detection (CHAID) analysis to identify the primary variables determining the combinations of the services used.

RESULTS

We identified nine patterns of service use: day care only (16.5%); day care and assistive devices (14.4%); day care, home helper, and assistive devices (13.2%); home helper and assistive devices (11.8%); assistive devices only (10.9%); home helper only (8.7%); day care and home helper (7.7%); home helper, visiting nurse, and assistive devices (5.4%); and others (11.3%). The CHAID dendrogram illustrated the relative importance of significant independent variables in determining combination use; the most important variables in predicting combination use were certified care need level, living arrangements, cognitive function, and need for medical procedures. The characteristics of care managers and agencies were not associated with the combinations.

CONCLUSION

This study clarified patterns of community-based service use in the LTCI system in Japan. The combinations of services were more related to the physical and psychosocial status of older adults than to the characteristics of agencies and care managers. Although we found no association between service use and the characteristics of agencies and care managers, further examination of possible bias in the use of services should be included in future studies. Researchers and policymakers can use these combinations identified in this study to categorize the use of community-based care service and measure the outcomes of care interventions.

Determinants of long-term care services among the elderly: a population-based study in Taiwan

Objectives

The aim of the study was to investigate determinants of long-term care use and to clarify the differing characteristics of home/community-based and institution-based services users.

Design

Cross-sectional, population-based study.

Setting

Utilizing data from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey conducted in Taiwan.

Participants

A national sample of 2,608 people (1,312 men, 1,296 women) aged 65 and older.

Measurements

The utilization of long-term care services (both home/community- and institution-based services) was measured. A χ² analysis tested differences in baseline characteristics between home/community-based and institution-based long-term care users. The multiple-logistic model was adopted with a hierarchical approach adding the Andersen model’s predisposing, enabling, and need factors sequentially. Multiple logistic models further stratified data by gender and age.

Results

Compared with users of home/community-based care, those using institution-based care had less education (p = 0.019), greater likelihood of being single (p = 0.001), fewer family members (p = 0.002), higher prevalence of stool incontinence (p = 0.011) and dementia (P = .025), and greater disability (p = 0.016). After adjustment, age (compared with 65–69 years; 75–79 years, odds ratio [OR] = 2.08, p = 0.044; age ≥80, OR = 3.30, p = 0.002), being single (OR = 2.16, p = 0.006), urban living (OR = 1.68, p = 0.037), stroke (OR = 2.08, p = 0.015), dementia (OR = 2.32, p = 0.007), 1–3 items of activities of daily living (ADL) disability (OR = 5.56, p<0.001), and 4–6 items of ADL disability (OR = 21.57, p<0.001) were significantly associated with long-term care use.

Conclusion

Age, single marital status, stroke, dementia, and ADL disability are predictive factors for long-term care use. The utilization was directly proportional to the level of disability.

The health heterogeneity of and health care utilization by the elderly in Taiwan

A good understanding of the health heterogeneity of elderly people, their characteristics, patterns of health care utilization and subsequent expenditures is necessary to adequately evaluate the policy options and interventions aimed at improving quality and efficiency of care for older people. This article reviews studies that used Latent Class Analysis to identify four health profiles among elderly people in Taiwan: High Comorbidity (HC), Functional Impairment (FI), Frail (FR), and Relatively Healthy (RH). Variables associated with increased likelihood of being in the FR group were older age, female gender, and living with one’s family, and these also correlated with ethnicity and level of education. The HC group tended to use more ambulatory care services compared with those in the RH group. The HC group tended to be younger, better educated, and was more likely to live in urban areas than were people in the FI group. The FI group, apart from age and gender, was less likely be of Hakka ethnicity and more likely to live with others than were individuals in the RH group. The FI group had relatively high probabilities of needing assistance, and the FR group had higher healthcare expenditures. A person-centered approach would better satisfy current healthcare needs of elderly people and help forecast future expenditures.

The effect of population aging on health expenditure growth: a critical review

Although the consequences of population aging for growth in health expenditures have been widely investigated, research on this topic is rather fragmented. Therefore, these consequences are not fully understood. This paper reviews the consequences of population aging for health expenditure growth in Western countries by combining insights from epidemiological and health economics research. Based on a conceptual model of health care use, we first review evidence on the relationship between age and health expenditures to provide insight into the direct effect of aging on health expenditure growth. Second, we discuss the interaction between aging and the main societal drivers of health expenditures. Aging most likely influences growth in health expenditures indirectly, through its influence on these societal factors. The literature shows that the direct effect of aging depends strongly on underlying health and disability. Commonly used approximations of health, like age or mortality, insufficiently capture complex dynamics in health. Population aging moderately increases expenditures on acute care and strongly increases expenditures on long-term care. The evidence further shows that the most important driver of health expenditure growth, medical technology, interacts strongly with age and health, i.e., population aging reinforces the influence of medical technology on health expenditure growth and vice versa. We therefore conclude that population aging will remain in the centre of policy debate. Further research should focus on the changes in health that explain the effect of longevity gains on health expenditures, and on the interactions between aging and other societal factors driving expenditure growth.

The association between functional disability and acute care utilization among the elderly in Taiwan

Disability is associated with increased long-term care use among the elderly, but its association with utilization of acute care is not well understood. The aim of this study is to investigate the association between functional disability and acute medical care utilization among the elderly. This nationwide, population-based cohort study was based on data from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), linking to the 2004-2007 National Health Insurance (NHI) claims data. A total of 1521 elderly subjects aged 65 years or above were observed from the year 2004 to 2006; this sample was considered to be a national representative sample. The utilization of acute medical care (including outpatient services, emergency services, and inpatient services) and medical expenditure were measured. Functional disability was measured by determining limitations on activities of daily living (ADLs), instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), and mobility. After adjusting for age, comorbidity, and sociodemographic characteristics, functional disability that affected IADLs or mobility was a significant factor contributing to the increased use of care. A clear proportional relationship existed between disability and utilization, and this pattern persisted across different types of acute care services. Disability affecting IADLs or mobility, rather than ADLs, was a more sensitive predictor of acute medical care utilization. Compared to elderly persons with no limitations, the medical expenditure of those with moderate-to-severe limitations was 2-3 times higher for outpatient, emergency, and inpatient services. In conclusion, functional disability among the elderly is a significant factor contributing to the increased use of acute care services.

Utilization of health care services by elderly people with National Health Insurance in Taiwan: the heterogeneous health profile approach

OBJECTIVES

Taiwan is now facing an increased prevalence of aging related diseases and escalating healthcare costs. Within the context of the health care system and NHI in Taiwan, the aim of this study was to examine the health profiles of elderly people by using Latent Class Analysis to determine the effects of different health profiles on the health care services utilization and expenditures, and to examine the factors associated with by controlling for the health profiles of elderly people.

METHODS

Data came from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey in Taiwan. Among those who were interviewed, 2449 elderly individuals with available health indicators were identified, and 1491 of these had complete socio-economic data and linkage to their utilization of health care services from 2004 to 2007 were analyzed.

RESULTS

Four health profiles were identified. The effect of the different health profiles of elderly people on the likelihood of utilization and expenditure on health care services was significant. While comparing with Relative Healthy group, the High Comorbidity group tended to utilize more services in the ambulatory care. The functional impairment group had relatively high probabilities of needing care assistance and the Frail group had higher health care expenditures. Age and gender did not have a significant effect and other associated socio-economic factors were also discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

The health status of elderly people includes a variety of health indicators. We suggest that a person-centered approach is needed in order to satisfy needs and forecast expenditures in the future.

Forecasting lifetime and aggregate long-term care spending: accounting for changing disability patterns

OBJECTIVE

The impact population aging exerts on future levels of long-term care (LTC) spending is an urgent topic in which few studies have accounted for disability trends. We forecast individual lifetime and population aggregate annual LTC spending for the Dutch 55+ population to 2030 accounting for changing disability patterns.

METHODS

Three levels of (dis)ability were distinguished: none, mild, and severe. Two-part models were used to estimate LTC spending as a function of age, sex, and disability status. A multistate life table model was used to forecast age-specific prevalence of disability and life expectancy (LE) in each disability state. Finally, 2-part model estimates and multistate projections were combined to obtain forecasts of LTC expenditures.

RESULTS

LE is expected to increase, whereas life years in severe disability remain constant, resulting in a relative compression of severe disability. Mild disability life years increase, especially for women. Lifetime homecare spending--mainly determined by mild disability--increases, whereas institutional spending remains fairly constant due to stable LE with severe disability. Lifetime LTC expenditures, largely determined by institutional spending, are thus hardly influenced by increasing LE. Aggregate spending for the 55+ population is expected to rise by 56.0% in the period of 2007-2030.

CONCLUSIONS

Longevity gains accompanied by a compression of severe disability will not seriously increase lifetime spending. The growth of the elderly cohort, however, will considerably increase aggregate spending. Stimulating a compression of disability is among the main solutions to alleviate the consequences of longevity gains and population aging to growth of LTC spending.

Is it time for a change? A cost-effectiveness analysis comparing a multidisciplinary integrated care model for residential homes to usual care

Objective

The objective of this study was to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of a Multidisciplinary Integrated Care (MIC) model compared to Usual Care (UC) in Dutch residential homes.

Methods

The economic evaluation was conducted from a societal perspective alongside a 6 month, clustered, randomized controlled trial involving 10 Dutch residential homes. Outcome measures included a quality of care weighted sum score, functional health (COOP WONCA) and Quality Adjusted Life-Years (QALY). Missing cost and effect data were imputed using multiple imputation. Bootstrapping was used to analyze differences in costs and cost-effectiveness.

Results

The quality of care sum score in MIC was significantly higher than in UC. The other primary outcomes showed no significant differences between the MIC and UC. The costs of providing MIC were approximately €225 per patient. Total costs were €2,061 in the MIC group and €1,656 for the UC group (mean difference €405, 95% −13; 826). The probability that the MIC was cost-effective in comparison with UC was 0.95 or more for ceiling ratios larger than €129 regarding patient related quality of care. Cost-effectiveness planes showed that the MIC model was not cost-effective compared to UC for the other outcomes.

Interpretation

Clinical effect differences between the groups were small but quality of care was significantly improved in the MIC group. Short term costs for MIC were higher. Future studies should focus on longer term economic and clinical effects.

Trial Registration

Controlled-Trials.com ISRCTN11076857

Depressive symptoms and impaired physical function after acute lung injury: a 2-year longitudinal study

RATIONALE

Survivors of acute lung injury (ALI) frequently have substantial depressive symptoms and physical impairment, but the longitudinal epidemiology of these conditions remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the 2-year incidence and duration of depressive symptoms and physical impairment after ALI, as well as risk factors for these conditions.

METHODS

This prospective, longitudinal cohort study recruited patients from 13 intensive care units (ICUs) in four hospitals, with follow-up 3, 6, 12, and 24 months after ALI. The outcomes were Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale depression score greater than or equal to 8 ("depressive symptoms") in patients without a history of depression before ALI, and two or more dependencies in instrumental activities of daily living ("impaired physical function") in patients without baseline impairment.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

During 2-year follow-up of 186 ALI survivors, the cumulative incidences of depressive symptoms and impaired physical function were 40 and 66%, respectively, with greatest incidence by 3-month follow-up; modal durations were greater than 21 months for each outcome. Risk factors for incident depressive symptoms were education 12 years or less, baseline disability or unemployment, higher baseline medical comorbidity, and lower blood glucose in the ICU. Risk factors for incident impaired physical function were longer ICU stay and prior depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Incident depressive symptoms and impaired physical function are common and long-lasting during the first 2 years after ALI. Interventions targeting potentially modifiable risk factors (e.g., substantial depressive symptoms in early recovery) should be evaluated to improve ALI survivors' long-term outcomes.

Risk of continued institutionalization after hospitalization in older adults

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the role of hospitalization as a risk factor for placement into long-term care. We therefore sought to estimate the percentage of long-term care nursing home stays precipitated by a hospitalization and factors associated with risk of nursing home placement after hospitalization.

METHODS

We studied a retrospective cohort of a 5% sample of Medicare enrollees aged ≥ 66 years. The study included 762,243 patients admitted 1,149,568 times in January-April of 1996-2008, with 3,880,292 nonhospitalized controls. We measured residence in a nursing home 6 months after hospitalization.

RESULTS

From 1996 through 2008, 5.55% of hospitalized patients resided in a nursing home 6 months later compared with 0.54% of nonhospitalized control patients. Three quarters of new nursing home placements were precipitated by a hospitalization. Independent risk factors for long-term care placement after hospitalization included advanced age (odds ratio [OR] = 3.56 for age 85-94 vs. 66-74 years), female gender (OR = 1.41), dementia (OR = 6.15), and discharge from the hospital to a skilled nursing facility (SNF; OR = 10.83). Having a primary care physician was associated with reduced odds (OR = 0.75). In the adjusted analyses, risk of institutionalization after hospitalization decreased 4% per year from 1996 to 2008. There were very large geographic variations in rates of long-term care after hospitalization, from < 2% in some hospital referral regions to > 13% in others for patients > 75 years in 2007-2008.

CONCLUSIONS

Most placements in nursing homes are preceded by a hospitalization followed by discharge to a SNF. Discharge to a SNF is associated with a high risk of subsequent long-term care.

The relationship between baseline health and longitudinal costs of hospital use

In this paper, we investigate the relationship between baseline health and costs of hospital use over a period of eight years. We combine cross-sectional survey data with information from the Dutch national hospital register. Four different indicators of health (self-perceived health, long-term impairments, ADL limitations and comorbidity) are considered. We find that for ages 50 to 70, differences in hospital costs between good health and bad health are substantial and persist during the whole time period. However, for higher ages expected hospital costs for individuals in bad health decline rapidly and become lower than those for people in good health after about six to seven years. The higher mortality rate among people in bad health is the primary cause here. Our results are confirmed for all four health indicators. We conclude that relying on better health to contain healthcare expenditures is too optimistic, and the interaction between health and mortality should be taken into account when projecting healthcare costs. Healthy ageing is important, but more for health gains than for cost savings.

Obesity, smoking, alcohol consumption and years lived with disability: a Sullivan life table approach

BACKGROUND

To avoid strong declines in the quality of life due to population ageing, and to ensure sustainability of the health care system, reductions in the burden of disability among elderly populations are urgently needed. Life style interventions may help to reduce the years lived with one or more disabilities, but it is not fully understood which life style factor has the largest potential for such reductions. Therefore, the primary aim of this paper is to compare the effect of BMI, smoking and alcohol consumption on life expectancy with disability, using the Sullivan life table method. A secondary aim is to assess potential improvement of the Sullivan method by using information on the association of disability with time to death.

METHODS

Data from the Dutch Permanent Survey of the Living Situation (POLS) 1997-1999 with mortality follow-up until 2006 (n = 6,446) were used. Using estimated relative mortality risks by risk factor exposure, separate life tables were constructed for groups defined in terms of BMI, smoking status and alcohol consumption. Logistic regression models were fitted to predict the prevalence of ADL and mobility disabilities in relationship to age and risk factor exposure. Using the Sullivan method, predicted age-specific prevalence rates were included in the life table to calculate years lived with disability at age 55. In further analysis we assessed whether adding information on time to death in both the regression models and the life table estimates would lead to substantive changes in the results.

RESULTS

Life expectancy at age 55 differed by 1.4 years among groups defined in terms of BMI, 4.0 years by smoking status, and 3.0 years by alcohol consumption. Years lived with disability differed by 2.8 years according to BMI, 0.2 years by smoking and 1.6 by alcohol consumption. Obese persons could expect to live more years with disability (5.9 years) than smokers (3.8 years) and drinkers (3.1 years). Employing information on time to death led to lower estimates of years lived with disability, and to smaller differences in these years according to BMI (2.1 years), alcohol (1.2 years), and smoking (0.1 years).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with smoking and drinking alcohol, obesity is most strongly associated with an increased risk of spending many years of life with disability. Although employing information on the relation of disability with time to death improves the precision of Sullivan life table estimates, the relative importance of risk factors remained unchanged.

How nursing staff spend their time on activities in a nursing home: an observational study

AIM

This article is a report of a study to examine how nursing staff spend their time on activities in a nursing home.

BACKGROUND

Few studies have investigated how nursing staff spend their time on activities in a nursing home. Such information is important for nurse managers in deciding on staff deployment, and for evaluating the effects of changes in nursing practice.

METHOD

A work sampling study with an observational component was undertaken in 2009 with nursing staff at a nursing home.

RESULTS

A total of 430 activities were recorded for Registered Nurses, 331 for Endorsed Enrolled Nurses, 5276 for Personal Carers, and 501 for Recreational Activity Officers. Registered Nurses spent 48·4% of their time on communication and 18·1% on medication management. Endorsed Enrolled Nurses spent 37·7% on communication and 29·0% on documentation tasks. Communication was the most time-consuming activity for Recreational Activity Officers and Personal Carers, except that Personal Carers in a high care house spent more time on direct care duties. Hygiene duties and resident interaction were more frequently multitasked by the nursing staff in high care than in low care house.

CONCLUSION

Nursing staff value their face-to-face interaction for successful care delivery. There is need, however, to investigate the effects of this form of communication on quality of care given to residents. Differences in multi-tasked activities between high care and low care houses should be considered when deploying staff in a nursing home.

Determinants of long-term care spending: age, time to death or disability?

In view of population aging, better understanding of what drives long-term care expenditure (LTCE) is warranted. Time-to-death (TTD) has commonly been used to project LTCE because it was a better predictor than age. We reconsider the roles of age and TTD by controlling for disability and co-residence and illustrate their relevance for projecting LTCE. We analyze spending on institutional and homecare for the entire Dutch 55+ population, conditioning on age, sex, TTD, cause-of-death and co-residence. We further examined homecare expenditures for a sample of non-institutionalized conditioning additionally on disability. Those living alone or deceased from diabetes, mental illness, stroke, respiratory or digestive disease have higher LTCE, while a cancer death is associated with lower expenditures. TTD no longer determines homecare expenditures when disability is controlled for. This suggests that TTD largely approximates disability. Nonetheless, further standardization of disability measurement is required before disability could replace TTD in LTCE projections models.

Predictors of the utilization of long-term care (LTC) services among residents in community-based LTC facilities in Taiwan

Identifying the utilization behaviors of LTC residents is necessary in order to forecast the demand and the level of resource use for health services. The purpose of this study is to understand the utilization behaviors and their predictors among residents of community-based LTC facilities in Taiwan. A prospective design was used in this study. Subjects were from six community-based LTC facilities in Beitou district of Taipei, Taiwan. A one-month time sheet was developed comprising subjects' socio-demographic characteristics, health status, and their use of LTC services. Among five types of LTC services examined in this study, assistance with activities of daily living (ADL) were the most commonly used (mean=67.3±46.0). ADL score was the strongest predictor of service utilization, accounting for 40% of the total variation in the utilization of personal assistance services (R2=0.396). The second most commonly used service was skilled-nursing services (mean=13.3±10.3). The most common skilled-nursing activities were administration of medication (mean=5.2±3.9) and measuring vital sign measurement (mean=3.4±2.3). The results provide useful information on how to allocate resources among staff in community-based LTC facilities.

Preferences for long-term care services: willingness to pay estimates derived from a discrete choice experiment

Ageing populations increase pressure on long-term care. Optimal resource allocation requires an optimal mix of care services based on costs and benefits. Contrary to costs, benefits remain largely unknown. This study elicits preferences in the general elderly population for long-term care services for varying types of patients. A discrete choice experiment was conducted in a general population subsample aged 50-65 years (N = 1082) drawn from the Dutch Survey Sampling International panel. To ascertain relative preferences for long-term care and willingness to pay for these, participants were asked to choose the best of two care scenarios for four groups of hypothetical patients: frail and demented elderly, with and without partner. The scenarios described long-term care using ten attributes based on Social Production Function theory: hours of care, organized social activities, transportation, living situation, same person delivering care, room for individual preferences, coordination of services, punctuality, time on waiting list, and co-payments. We found the greatest value was attached to same person delivering care and transportation services. Low value was attached to punctuality and room for individual preferences. Nursing homes were generally considered to be detrimental for well-being except for dementia patients without a partner. Overall, long-term care services were thought to produce greatest well-being for the patients 'without a partner' and those 'with dementia'. Individuals combining these two risk factors would benefit the most from all services except transportation which was considered more important for the frail elderly. The results support the notion that long-term care services represent different value for different types of patients and that the value of a service depends upon the social context. Examination of patient profiles confirmed the notion that physical, mental and social vulnerability affect valuation of the services. Policy-making would profit from allocation models in which budgetary requirements of different services can be balanced against the well-being they produce for individuals.