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Chen J, Fu Y, Sun Y, Zhou X, Wang Q, Li C, Yuan H. Novel KCNJ16 variants identified in a Chinese patient with hypokalemic metabolic acidosis. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2023; 11:e2238. [PMID: 37466410 PMCID: PMC10655507 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.2238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Biallelic pathogenic variants in the KCNJ16 gene result in hypokalemic tubulopathy and deafness (HKTD) (MIM #619406), which is a rare autosomal recessive disease characterized by hypokalemic tubulopathy with renal salt wasting, disturbed acid-base homeostasis, and sensorineural deafness. Currently, nine individuals with HKTD have been reported, and seven pathogenic variants in KCNJ16 have been revealed. METHODS A 5-year-6-month-old Chinese female patient displayed hypokalemic metabolic acidosis, salt wasting, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) activation, arrhythmia, myocardial damage, cardiogenic shock and secondary diffuse brain oedema. Trio-based whole-exome sequencing (WES) was applied to detect the genetic cause. RESULTS Novel compound heterozygous variants, c.190A>C (p.Thr64Pro) and c.628C>G (p.His210Asp), in KCNJ16 were detected in the patient, and these variants were inherited from the patient's mother and father, respectively. Then, we systematically reviewed the available clinical manifestations of individuals with HKTD. We found that HKTD patients are at risk of cardiogenic shock and secondary diffuse brain oedema, which urges clinicians to make early diagnoses with prompt treatments. CONCLUSION These findings expand the variant spectrum of KCNJ16, enrich the clinical characteristics of HKTD, and provide a solid base for the genetic counseling, diagnosis and treatment of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianxiong Chen
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
- Key Laboratory for Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Infectious Diseases in ChildrenDongguanChina
| | - Youqing Fu
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
| | - Yan Sun
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
| | - Xinlong Zhou
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
- Key Laboratory for Precision Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Infectious Diseases in ChildrenDongguanChina
| | - Qingming Wang
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
- Department of Medical GeneticsDongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
| | - Cong Li
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
| | - Haiming Yuan
- Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
- Department of Medical GeneticsDongguan Maternal and Child Health Care HospitalDongguanChina
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Kettritz R, Loffing J. Potassium homeostasis - Physiology and pharmacology in a clinical context. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 249:108489. [PMID: 37454737 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Membrane voltage controls the function of excitable cells and is mainly a consequence of the ratio between the extra- and intracellular potassium concentration. Potassium homeostasis is safeguarded by balancing the extra-/intracellular distribution and systemic elimination of potassium to the dietary potassium intake. These processes adjust the plasma potassium concentration between 3.5 and 4.5 mmol/L. Several genetic and acquired diseases but also pharmacological interventions cause dyskalemias that are associated with increased morbidity and mortality. The thresholds at which serum K+ not only associates but also causes increased mortality are hotly debated. We discuss physiologic, pathophysiologic, and pharmacologic aspects of potassium regulation and provide informative case vignettes. Our aim is to help clinicians, epidemiologists, and pharmacologists to understand the complexity of the potassium homeostasis in health and disease and to initiate appropriate treatment strategies in dyskalemic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Kettritz
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association and Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany.
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Zhang C, Guo J. Diverse functions of the inward-rectifying potassium channel Kir5.1 and its relationship with human diseases. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1127893. [PMID: 36923292 PMCID: PMC10008857 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1127893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The inward-rectifying potassium channel subunit Kir5.1, encoded by Kcnj16, can form functional heteromeric channels (Kir4.1/5.1 and Kir4.2/5.1) with Kir4.1 (encoded by Kcnj10) or Kir4.2 (encoded by Kcnj15). It is expressed in the kidneys, pancreas, thyroid, brain, and other organs. Although Kir5.1 cannot form functional homomeric channels in most cases, an increasing number of studies in recent years have found that the functions of this subunit should not be underestimated. Kir5.1 can confer intracellular pH sensitivity to Kir4.1/5.1 channels, which can act as extracellular potassium sensors in the renal distal convoluted tubule segment. This segment plays an important role in maintaining potassium and acid-base balances. This review summarizes the various pathophysiological processes involved in Kir5.1 and the expression changes of Kir5.1 as a differentially expressed gene in various cancers, as well as describing several other disease phenotypes caused by Kir5.1 dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaojie Zhang
- Nephrology Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Province Research Center for Kidney Disease, Zhengzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Chronic Kidney Disease in Henan Province, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jia Guo
- Nephrology Research Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Henan Province Research Center for Kidney Disease, Zhengzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Precision Diagnosis and Treatment for Chronic Kidney Disease in Henan Province, Zhengzhou, China
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Montalbetti N, Przepiorski AJ, Shi S, Sheng S, Baty CJ, Maggiore JC, Carattino MD, Vanichapol T, Davidson AJ, Hukriede NA, Kleyman TR. Functional characterization of ion channels expressed in kidney organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2022; 323:F479-F491. [PMID: 35979965 PMCID: PMC9529267 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00365.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Kidney organoids derived from human or rodent pluripotent stem cells have glomerular structures and differentiated/polarized nephron segments. Although there is an increasing understanding of the patterns of expression of transcripts and proteins within kidney organoids, there is a paucity of data regarding functional protein expression, in particular on transporters that mediate the vectorial transport of solutes. Using cells derived from kidney organoids, we examined the functional expression of key ion channels that are expressed in distal nephron segments: the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BKCa) channel, the renal outer medullary K+ (ROMK, Kir1.1) channel, and the epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC). RNA-sequencing analyses showed that genes encoding the pore-forming subunits of these transporters, and for BKCa channels, key accessory subunits, are expressed in kidney organoids. Expression and localization of selected ion channels was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoblot analysis. Electrophysiological analysis showed that BKCa and ROMK channels are expressed in different cell populations. These two cell populations also expressed other unidentified Ba2+-sensitive K+ channels. BKCa expression was confirmed at a single channel level, based on its high conductance and voltage dependence of activation. We also found a population of cells expressing amiloride-sensitive ENaC currents. In summary, our results show that human kidney organoids functionally produce key distal nephron K+ and Na+ channels.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Our results show that human kidney organoids express key K+ and Na+ channels that are expressed on the apical membranes of cells in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron, including the large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel, renal outer medullary K+ channel, and epithelial Na+ channel.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aneta J Przepiorski
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shujie Shi
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Shaohu Sheng
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Catherine J Baty
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Joseph C Maggiore
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Marcelo D Carattino
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Thitinee Vanichapol
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alan J Davidson
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Neil A Hukriede
- Department of Developmental Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Thomas R Kleyman
- Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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Staruschenko A, Hodges MR, Palygin O. Kir5.1 channels: potential role in epilepsy and seizure disorders. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2022; 323:C706-C717. [PMID: 35848616 PMCID: PMC9448276 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00235.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels are broadly expressed in many mammalian organ systems, where they contribute to critical physiological functions. However, the importance and function of the Kir5.1 channel (encoded by the KCNJ16 gene) have not been fully recognized. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding the expression patterns and functional roles of Kir5.1 channels in fundamental physiological systems vital to potassium homeostasis and neurological disorders. Recent studies have described the role of Kir5.1-forming Kir channels in mouse and rat lines with mutations in the Kcnj16 gene. The animal research reveals distinct renal and neurological phenotypes, including pH and electrolyte imbalances, blunted ventilatory responses to hypercapnia/hypoxia, and seizure disorders. Furthermore, it was confirmed that these phenotypes are reminiscent of those in patient cohorts in which mutations in the KCNJ16 gene have also been identified, further suggesting a critical role for Kir5.1 channels in homeostatic/neural systems health and disease. Future studies that focus on the many functional roles of these channels, expanded genetic screening in human patients, and the development of selective small-molecule inhibitors for Kir5.1 channels, will continue to increase our understanding of this unique Kir channel family member.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Staruschenko
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Physiology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
- Hypertension and Kidney Research Center, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
- James A. Haley Veterans Hospital, Tampa, Florida
| | - Matthew R Hodges
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Oleg Palygin
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina
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6
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Kir Channel Molecular Physiology, Pharmacology, and Therapeutic Implications. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2021; 267:277-356. [PMID: 34345939 DOI: 10.1007/164_2021_501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
For the past two decades several scholarly reviews have appeared on the inwardly rectifying potassium (Kir) channels. We would like to highlight two efforts in particular, which have provided comprehensive reviews of the literature up to 2010 (Hibino et al., Physiol Rev 90(1):291-366, 2010; Stanfield et al., Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol 145:47-179, 2002). In the past decade, great insights into the 3-D atomic resolution structures of Kir channels have begun to provide the molecular basis for their functional properties. More recently, computational studies are beginning to close the time domain gap between in silico dynamic and patch-clamp functional studies. The pharmacology of these channels has also been expanding and the dynamic structural studies provide hope that we are heading toward successful structure-based drug design for this family of K+ channels. In the present review we focus on placing the physiology and pharmacology of this K+ channel family in the context of atomic resolution structures and in providing a glimpse of the promising future of therapeutic opportunities.
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Schlingmann KP, Renigunta A, Hoorn EJ, Forst AL, Renigunta V, Atanasov V, Mahendran S, Barakat TS, Gillion V, Godefroid N, Brooks AS, Lugtenberg D, Lake J, Debaix H, Rudin C, Knebelmann B, Tellier S, Rousset-Rouvière C, Viering D, de Baaij JHF, Weber S, Palygin O, Staruschenko A, Kleta R, Houillier P, Bockenhauer D, Devuyst O, Vargas-Poussou R, Warth R, Zdebik AA, Konrad M. Defects in KCNJ16 Cause a Novel Tubulopathy with Hypokalemia, Salt Wasting, Disturbed Acid-Base Homeostasis, and Sensorineural Deafness. J Am Soc Nephrol 2021; 32:1498-1512. [PMID: 33811157 PMCID: PMC8259640 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2020111587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The transepithelial transport of electrolytes, solutes, and water in the kidney is a well-orchestrated process involving numerous membrane transport systems. Basolateral potassium channels in tubular cells not only mediate potassium recycling for proper Na+,K+-ATPase function but are also involved in potassium and pH sensing. Genetic defects in KCNJ10 cause EAST/SeSAME syndrome, characterized by renal salt wasting with hypokalemic alkalosis associated with epilepsy, ataxia, and sensorineural deafness. METHODS A candidate gene approach and whole-exome sequencing determined the underlying genetic defect in eight patients with a novel disease phenotype comprising a hypokalemic tubulopathy with renal salt wasting, disturbed acid-base homeostasis, and sensorineural deafness. Electrophysiologic studies and surface expression experiments investigated the functional consequences of newly identified gene variants. RESULTS We identified mutations in the KCNJ16 gene encoding KCNJ16, which along with KCNJ15 and KCNJ10, constitutes the major basolateral potassium channel of the proximal and distal tubules, respectively. Coexpression of mutant KCNJ16 together with KCNJ15 or KCNJ10 in Xenopus oocytes significantly reduced currents. CONCLUSIONS Biallelic variants in KCNJ16 were identified in patients with a novel disease phenotype comprising a variable proximal and distal tubulopathy associated with deafness. Variants affect the function of heteromeric potassium channels, disturbing proximal tubular bicarbonate handling as well as distal tubular salt reabsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl P. Schlingmann
- Department of General Pediatrics, Pediatric Nephrology, University Children’s Hospital, Munster, Germany
| | - Aparna Renigunta
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Marburg Kidney Research Center, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Ewout J. Hoorn
- Division of Nephrology and Transplantation, Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Anna-Lena Forst
- Department of Physiology, Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Vijay Renigunta
- Department of Neurophysiology, Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Velko Atanasov
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sinthura Mahendran
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Valentine Gillion
- Division of Nephrology, Saint-Luc Academic Hospital, Université Catholique Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nathalie Godefroid
- Division of Pediatric Nephrology, Saint-Luc Academic Hospital, Université Catholique Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alice S. Brooks
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dorien Lugtenberg
- Department of Human Genetics, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifer Lake
- Department of Physiology, Mechanism of Inherited Kidney Disorders, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Huguette Debaix
- Department of Physiology, Mechanism of Inherited Kidney Disorders, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Rudin
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, University Children’s Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Bertrand Knebelmann
- Department of Nephrology-Transplantation, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Necker, Paris, France,Reference Center for Hereditary Kidney and Childhood Diseases (MAladies Renales Hereditaires de l'Enfant et de l'Adulte), Paris, France
| | - Stephanie Tellier
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, and Rheumatology, French Reference Center of Rare Renal Diseases (SORARE), CHU Toulouse, Toulouse, France,Division of Rheumatology, Department of Pediatrics, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Caroline Rousset-Rouvière
- Department of Multidisciplinary Pediatrics, Pediatric Nephrology Unit, La Timone, University Hospital of Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Daan Viering
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen H. F. de Baaij
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Stefanie Weber
- Department of Pediatric Nephrology, Marburg Kidney Research Center, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Oleg Palygin
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Alexander Staruschenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Robert Kleta
- Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom,Department of Paediatric Nephrology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children National Health Service Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pascal Houillier
- Reference Center for Hereditary Kidney and Childhood Diseases (MAladies Renales Hereditaires de l'Enfant et de l'Adulte), Paris, France,Department of Physiology, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, Paris, France,Department of Renal Physiology, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France
| | - Detlef Bockenhauer
- Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom,Department of Paediatric Nephrology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children National Health Service Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
| | - Olivier Devuyst
- Division of Nephrology, Saint-Luc Academic Hospital, Université Catholique Louvain, Brussels, Belgium,Department of Physiology, Mechanism of Inherited Kidney Disorders, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rosa Vargas-Poussou
- Reference Center for Hereditary Kidney and Childhood Diseases (MAladies Renales Hereditaires de l'Enfant et de l'Adulte), Paris, France,Department of Renal Physiology, Centre de Recherche des Cordeliers, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, France,Department of Genetics, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Européen Georges-Pompidou, Paris, France
| | - Richard Warth
- Department of Physiology, Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anselm A. Zdebik
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom,Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Konrad
- Department of General Pediatrics, Pediatric Nephrology, University Children’s Hospital, Munster, Germany
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Weaver CD, Denton JS. Next-generation inward rectifier potassium channel modulators: discovery and molecular pharmacology. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2021; 320:C1125-C1140. [PMID: 33826405 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00548.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Inward rectifying potassium (Kir) channels play important roles in both excitable and nonexcitable cells of various organ systems and could represent valuable new drug targets for cardiovascular, metabolic, immune, and neurological diseases. In nonexcitable epithelial cells of the kidney tubule, for example, Kir1.1 (KCNJ1) and Kir4.1 (KCNJ10) are linked to sodium reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop and distal convoluted tubule, respectively, and have been explored as novel-mechanism diuretic targets for managing hypertension and edema. G protein-coupled Kir channels (Kir3) channels expressed in the central nervous system are critical effectors of numerous signal transduction pathways underlying analgesia, addiction, and respiratory-depressive effects of opioids. The historical dearth of pharmacological tool compounds for exploring the therapeutic potential of Kir channels has led to a molecular target-based approach using high-throughput screen (HTS) of small-molecule libraries and medicinal chemistry to develop "next-generation" Kir channel modulators that are both potent and specific for their targets. In this article, we review recent efforts focused specifically on discovery and improvement of target-selective molecular probes. The reader is introduced to fluorescence-based thallium flux assays that have enabled much of this work and then provided with an overview of progress made toward developing modulators of Kir1.1 (VU590, VU591), Kir2.x (ML133), Kir3.X (ML297, GAT1508, GiGA1, VU059331), Kir4.1 (VU0134992), and Kir7.1 (ML418). We discuss what is known about the small molecules' molecular mechanisms of action, in vitro and in vivo pharmacology, and then close with our view of what critical work remains to be done.
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Affiliation(s)
- C David Weaver
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jerod S Denton
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee.,Department of Anesthesiology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
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Franken GAC, Adella A, Bindels RJM, Baaij JHF. Mechanisms coupling sodium and magnesium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule of the kidney. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2021; 231:e13528. [PMID: 32603001 PMCID: PMC7816272 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hypomagnesaemia is a common feature of renal Na+ wasting disorders such as Gitelman and EAST/SeSAME syndrome. These genetic defects specifically affect Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule, where Mg2+ reabsorption is tightly regulated. Apical uptake via TRPM6 Mg2+ channels and basolateral Mg2+ extrusion via a putative Na+ -Mg2+ exchanger determines Mg2+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule. However, the mechanisms that explain the high incidence of hypomagnesaemia in patients with Na+ wasting disorders of the distal convoluted tubule are largely unknown. In this review, we describe three potential mechanisms by which Mg2+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule is linked to Na+ reabsorption. First, decreased activity of the thiazide-sensitive Na+ /Cl- cotransporter (NCC) results in shortening of the segment, reducing the Mg2+ reabsorption capacity. Second, the activity of TRPM6 and NCC are determined by common regulatory pathways. Secondary effects of NCC dysregulation such as hormonal imbalance, therefore, might disturb TRPM6 expression. Third, the basolateral membrane potential, maintained by the K+ permeability and Na+ -K+ -ATPase activity, provides the driving force for Na+ and Mg2+ extrusion. Depolarisation of the basolateral membrane potential in Na+ wasting disorders of the distal convoluted tubule may therefore lead to reduced activity of the putative Na+ -Mg2+ exchanger SLC41A1. Elucidating the interconnections between Mg2+ and Na+ transport in the distal convoluted tubule is hampered by the currently available models. Our analysis indicates that the coupling of Na+ and Mg2+ reabsorption may be multifactorial and that advanced experimental models are required to study the molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs A. C. Franken
- Department of Physiology Radboud Institute for Molecular Life SciencesRadboud University Medical Center Nijmegen the Netherlands
| | - Anastasia Adella
- Department of Physiology Radboud Institute for Molecular Life SciencesRadboud University Medical Center Nijmegen the Netherlands
| | - René J. M. Bindels
- Department of Physiology Radboud Institute for Molecular Life SciencesRadboud University Medical Center Nijmegen the Netherlands
| | - Jeroen H. F. Baaij
- Department of Physiology Radboud Institute for Molecular Life SciencesRadboud University Medical Center Nijmegen the Netherlands
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McFarlin BE, Chen Y, Priver TS, Ralph DL, Mercado A, Gamba G, Madhur MS, McDonough AA. Coordinate adaptations of skeletal muscle and kidney to maintain extracellular [K +] during K +-deficient diet. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2020; 319:C757-C770. [PMID: 32845718 PMCID: PMC7654654 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00362.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular fluid (ECF) potassium concentration ([K+]) is maintained by adaptations of kidney and skeletal muscle, responses heretofore studied separately. We aimed to determine how these organ systems work in concert to preserve ECF [K+] in male C57BL/6J mice fed a K+-deficient diet (0K) versus 1% K+ diet (1K) for 10 days (n = 5-6/group). During 0K feeding, plasma [K+] fell from 4.5 to 2 mM; hindlimb muscle (gastrocnemius and soleus) lost 28 mM K+ (from 115 ± 2 to 87 ± 2 mM) and gained 27 mM Na+ (from 27 ± 0.4 to 54 ± 2 mM). Doubling of muscle tissue [Na+] was not associated with inflammation, cytokine production or hypertension as reported by others. Muscle transporter adaptations in 0K- versus 1K-fed mice, assessed by immunoblot, included decreased sodium pump α2-β2 subunits, decreased K+-Cl- cotransporter isoform 3, and increased phosphorylated (p) Na+,K+,2Cl- cotransporter isoform 1 (NKCC1p), Ste20/SPS-1-related proline-alanine rich kinase (SPAKp), and oxidative stress-responsive kinase 1 (OSR1p) consistent with intracellular fluid (ICF) K+ loss and Na+ gain. Renal transporters' adaptations, effecting a 98% reduction in K+ excretion, included two- to threefold increased phosphorylated Na+-Cl- cotransporter (NCCp), SPAKp, and OSR1p abundance, limiting Na+ delivery to epithelial Na+ channels where Na+ reabsorption drives K+ secretion; and renal K sensor Kir 4.1 abundance fell 25%. Mass balance estimations indicate that over 10 days of 0K feeding, mice lose ~48 μmol K+ into the urine and muscle shifts ~47 μmol K+ from ICF to ECF, illustrating the importance of the concerted responses during K+ deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon E McFarlin
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Yuhan Chen
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
- Department of Cardiology, Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China
| | - Taylor S Priver
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Donna L Ralph
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Adriana Mercado
- Department of Nephrology, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Gamba
- Molecular Physiology Unit, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Meena S Madhur
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Alicia A McDonough
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
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11
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Intracellular chloride: a regulator of transepithelial transport in the distal nephron. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2020; 28:360-367. [PMID: 30865168 DOI: 10.1097/mnh.0000000000000502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review focuses on the role of intracellular chloride in regulating transepithelial ion transport in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT) in response to perturbations in plasma potassium homeostasis. RECENT FINDINGS Low dietary potassium increases the phosphorylation and activity of the sodium chloride cotransporter (NCC) in the DCT, and vice versa, affecting sodium-dependent potassium secretion in the downstream aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron. In cells, NCC phosphorylation is increased by lowering of intracellular chloride, via activation of the chloride-sensitive with no lysine (WNK)-SPAK/OSR1 (Ste20-related proline/alanine-rich kinase/oxidative stress response) kinase cascade. In-vivo studies have demonstrated pathway activation in the kidney in response to low dietary potassium. A possible mechanism is lowering of DCT intracellular chloride in response to low potassium because of parallel basolateral potassium and chloride channels. Recent studies support a role for these channels in the response of NCC to varying potassium. Studies examining chloride-insensitive WNK mutants, in the Drosophila renal tubule and in the mouse, lend further support to a role for chloride in regulating WNK activity and transepithelial ion transport. Caveats, alternatives, and future directions are also discussed. SUMMARY Chloride sensing by WNK kinase provides a mechanism to allow coupling of extracellular potassium with NCC phosphorylation and activity to maintain potassium homeostasis.
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12
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Manis AD, Hodges MR, Staruschenko A, Palygin O. Expression, localization, and functional properties of inwardly rectifying K + channels in the kidney. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2020; 318:F332-F337. [PMID: 31841387 PMCID: PMC7052651 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00523.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channels are expressed in multiple organs and cell types and play critical roles in cellular function. Most notably, Kir channels are major determinants of the resting membrane potential and K+ homeostasis. The renal outer medullary K+ channel (Kir1.1) was the first renal Kir channel identified and cloned in the kidney over two decades ago. Since then, several additional members, including classical and ATP-regulated Kir family classes, have been identified to be expressed in the kidney and to contribute to renal ion transport. Although the ATP-regulated Kir channel class remains the most well known due to severe pathological phenotypes associated with their mutations, progress is being made in defining the properties, localization, and physiological functions of other renal Kir channels, including those localized to the basolateral epithelium. This review is primarily focused on the current knowledge of the expression and localization of renal Kir channels but will also briefly describe their proposed functions in the kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna D Manis
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Matthew R Hodges
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
- Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Alexander Staruschenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
- Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Oleg Palygin
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
- Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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13
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Penton D, Vohra T, Banki E, Wengi A, Weigert M, Forst AL, Bandulik S, Warth R, Loffing J. Collecting system-specific deletion of Kcnj10 predisposes for thiazide- and low-potassium diet-induced hypokalemia. Kidney Int 2020; 97:1208-1218. [PMID: 32299681 DOI: 10.1016/j.kint.2019.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The basolateral potassium channel KCNJ10 (Kir4.1), is expressed in the renal distal convoluted tubule and controls the activity of the thiazide-sensitive sodium chloride cotransporter. Loss-of-function mutations of KCNJ10 cause EAST/SeSAME syndrome with salt wasting and severe hypokalemia. KCNJ10 is also expressed in the principal cells of the collecting system. However, its pathophysiological role in this segment has not been studied in detail. To address this, we generated the mouse model AQP2cre:Kcnj10flox/flox with a deletion of Kcnj10 specifically in the collecting system (collecting system-Kcnj10-knockout). Collecting system-Kcnj10-knockout mice responded normally to standard and high potassium diet. However, this knockout exhibited a higher kaliuresis and lower plasma potassium than control mice when treated with thiazide diuretics. Likewise, collecting systemKcnj10-knockout displayed an inadequately high kaliuresis and renal sodium retention upon dietary potassium restriction. In this condition, these knockout mice became hypokalemic due to insufficient downregulation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) and the renal outer medullary potassium channel (ROMK) in the collecting system. Consistently, the phenotype of collecting system-Kcnj10-knockout was fully abrogated by ENaC inhibition with amiloride and ameliorated by genetic inactivation of ROMK in the collecting system. Thus, KCNJ10 in the collecting system contributes to the renal control of potassium homeostasis by regulating ENaC and ROMK. Hence, impaired KCNJ10 function in the collecting system predisposes for thiazide and low potassium diet-induced hypokalemia and likely contributes to the pathophysiology of renal potassium loss in EAST/SeSAME syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Penton
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Kidney Control of Homeostasis (Kidney.CH), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Twinkle Vohra
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eszter Banki
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Kidney Control of Homeostasis (Kidney.CH), Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Agnieszka Wengi
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maria Weigert
- Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Forst
- Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Sascha Bandulik
- Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Richard Warth
- Medical Cell Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Loffing
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Swiss National Centre of Competence in Research (NCCR) Kidney Control of Homeostasis (Kidney.CH), Zurich, Switzerland.
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14
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Manis AD, Palygin O, Khedr S, Levchenko V, Hodges MR, Staruschenko A. Relationship between the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and renal Kir5.1 channels. Clin Sci (Lond) 2019; 133:2449-2461. [PMID: 31799617 PMCID: PMC8474144 DOI: 10.1042/cs20190876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Kir5.1 (encoded by the Kcnj16 gene) is an inwardly rectifying K+ (Kir) channel highly expressed in the aldosterone-sensitive distal nephron of the kidney, where it forms a functional channel with Kir4.1. Kir4.1/Kir5.1 channels are responsible for setting the transepithelial voltage in the distal nephron and collecting ducts and are thereby major determinants of fluid and electrolyte distribution. These channels contribute to renal blood pressure control and have been implicated in salt-sensitive hypertension. However, mechanisms pertaining to the impact of K ir4.1/Kir5.1-mediated K+ transport on the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) remain unclear. Herein, we utilized a knockout of Kcnj16 in the Dahl salt-sensitive rat (SSKcnj16-/-) to investigate the relationship between Kir5.1 and RAAS balance and function in the sensitivity of blood pressure to the dietary Na+/K+ ratio. The knockout of Kcnj16 caused substantial elevations in plasma RAAS hormones (aldosterone and angiotensin peptides) and altered the RAAS response to changing the dietary Na+/K+ ratio. Blocking aldosterone with spironolactone caused rapid mortality in SSKcnj16-/- rats. Supplementation of the diet with high K+ was protective against mortality resulting from aldosterone-mediated mechanisms. Captopril and losartan treatment had no effect on the survival of SSKcnj16-/- rats. However, neither of these drugs prevented mortality of SSKcnj16-/- rats when switched to high Na+ diet. These studies revealed that the knockout of Kcnj16 markedly altered RAAS regulation and function, suggesting Kir5.1 as a key regulator of the RAAS, particularly when exposed to changes in dietary sodium and potassium content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna D. Manis
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Oleg Palygin
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Sherif Khedr
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
- Physiology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Vladislav Levchenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Matthew R. Hodges
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Alexander Staruschenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
- Clement J. Zablocki VA Medical Center, Milwaukee, WI 53295, USA
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15
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Mutig K, Bachmann S. Hyperkalemia and blood pressure regulation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2019; 34:iii26-iii35. [PMID: 31800077 DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfz218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypertension is common in the general population. Management of hypertensive patients at risk of hyperkalemia is challenging due to potential life-threatening complications such as cardiac arrest. Chronic hyperkalemia is often associated with impaired renal ability to excrete excessive potassium ions (K+). This may refer to chronic kidney disease or certain pharmacological interventions, including broadly used renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and calcineurin inhibitors. Understanding the intrinsic mechanisms permitting kidney adaptations to hyperkalemia is critical for choosing therapeutic strategies. Valuable insights were obtained from the analysis of familial hyperkalemic hypertension (FHHt) syndrome, which became a classic model for coincidence of high blood pressure and hyperkalemia. FHHt can be caused by mutations in several genes, all of them resulting in excessive activity of with-no-lysine kinases (WNKs) in the distal nephron of the kidney. WNKs have been increasingly recognized as key signalling enzymes in the regulation of renal sodium ions (Na+) and K+ handling, enabling adaptive responses to systemic shifts of potassium homoeostasis consequent to variations in dietary potassium intake or disease. The WNK signalling pathway recruits a complex protein network mediating catalytic and non-catalytic effects of distinct WNK isoforms on relevant Na+- or K+-transporting proteins. In this review article, we summarize recent progress in understanding WNK signalling. An update of available models for renal adaptation to hyperkalemic conditions is presented. Consequences for blood pressure regulation are discussed. Pharmacological targeting of WNKs or their substrates offers promising options to manage hypertension while preventing hyperkalemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerim Mutig
- Institute of Vegetative Anatomy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Pharmacology, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation (Sechenovskiy University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Sebastian Bachmann
- Institute of Vegetative Anatomy, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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16
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Isaeva E, Fedoriuk M, Bohovyk R, Klemens CA, Khedr S, Golosova D, Levchenko V, El-Meanawy A, Palygin O, Staruschenko A. Vibrodissociation method for isolation of defined nephron segments from human and rodent kidneys. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2019; 317:F1398-F1403. [PMID: 31588797 DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00448.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Our current knowledge of the properties of renal ion channels responsible for electrolytes and cell energy homeostasis mainly relies on rodent studies. However, it has not been established yet to what extent their characteristics can be generalized to those of humans. The present study was designed to develop a standardized protocol for the isolation of well-preserved glomeruli and renal tubules from rodent and human kidneys and to assess the functional suitability of the obtained materials for physiological studies. Separation of nephron segments from human and rodent kidneys was achieved using a novel vibrodissociation technique. The integrity of isolated renal tubules and glomeruli was probed via electrophysiological analysis and fluorescence microscopy, and the purity of the collected fractions was confirmed using quantitative RT-PCR with gene markers for specific cell types. The developed approach allows rapid isolation of well-preserved renal tubules and glomeruli from human and rodent kidneys amenable for electrophysiological, Ca2+ imaging, and omics studies. Analysis of the basic electrophysiological parameters of major K+ and Na+ channels expressed in human cortical collecting ducts revealed that they exhibited similar biophysical properties as previously reported in rodent studies. Using vibrodissociation for nephron segment isolation has several advantages over existing techniques: it is less labor intensive, requires little to no enzymatic treatment, and produces large quantities of well-preserved experimental material in pure fractions. Applying this method for the separation of nephron segments from human and rodent kidneys may be a powerful tool for the indepth assessment of kidney function in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Isaeva
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Cellular Membranology, Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Mykhailo Fedoriuk
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Cellular Membranology, Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Ruslan Bohovyk
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Cellular Membranology, Bogomoletz Institute of Physiology, Kiev, Ukraine
| | - Christine A Klemens
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Sherif Khedr
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Daria Golosova
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Vladislav Levchenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Ashraf El-Meanawy
- Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Department of Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Oleg Palygin
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Alexander Staruschenko
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Cardiovascular Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.,Clement J. Zablocki Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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