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Moura PA, Cardoso MZ, Montgomery SH. No evidence of social learning in a socially roosting butterfly in an associative learning task. Biol Lett 2023; 19:20220490. [PMID: 37194257 PMCID: PMC10189306 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Insects may acquire social information by active communication and through inadvertent social cues. In a foraging setting, the latter may indicate the presence and quality of resources. Although social learning in foraging contexts is prevalent in eusocial species, this behaviour has been hypothesized to also exist between conspecifics in non-social species with sophisticated behaviours, including Heliconius butterflies. Heliconius are the only butterfly genus with active pollen feeding, a dietary innovation associated with a specialized, spatially faithful foraging behaviour known as trap-lining. Long-standing hypotheses suggest that Heliconius may acquire trap-line information by following experienced individuals. Indeed, Heliconius often aggregate in social roosts, which could act as 'information centres', and present conspecific following behaviour, enhancing opportunities for social learning. Here, we provide a direct test of social learning ability in Heliconius using an associative learning task in which naive individuals completed a colour preference test in the presence of demonstrators trained to feed randomly or with a strong colour preference. We found no evidence that Heliconius erato, which roost socially, used social information in this task. Combined with existing field studies, our results add to data which contradict the hypothesized role of social learning in Heliconius foraging behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila A. Moura
- Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Marcio Z. Cardoso
- Departamento de Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil
- Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, 21941-902, Brazil
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2
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Riva F, Drapeau Picard AP, Larrivée M. Butterfly foraging is remarkably synchronous in an experimental tropical macrocosm. Biol Lett 2023; 19:20220555. [PMID: 36987612 PMCID: PMC10050915 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Diel patterns in foraging activity are dictated by a combination of abiotic, biotic and endogenous limits. Understanding these limits is important for insects because ectotherm taxa will respond more pronouncedly to ongoing climatic change, potentially affecting crucial ecosystem services. We leverage an experimental macrocosm, the Montreal Insectarium Grand Vivarium, to test the importance of endogenous mechanisms in determining temporal patterns in foraging activity of butterflies. Specifically, we assessed the degree of temporal niche partitioning among 24 butterfly species originating from the Earth's tropics within controlled environmental conditions. We found strong niche overlap, with the frequency of foraging events peaking around solar noon for 96% of the species assessed. Our models suggest that this result was not due to the extent of cloud cover, which affects radiational heating and thus limits body temperature in butterflies. Together, these findings suggest that an endogenous mechanism evolved to regulate the timing of butterfly foraging activity within suitable environmental conditions. Understanding similar mechanisms will be crucial to forecast the effects of climate change on insects, and thus on the many ecosystem services they provide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Riva
- Montréal Insectarium - Space for Life, 4581, Rue Sherbrooke East, Montréal, Québec, Canada H1X 2B2
- Geomatics and Landscape Ecology Laboratory, Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1S 5B6
| | | | - Maxim Larrivée
- Montréal Insectarium - Space for Life, 4581, Rue Sherbrooke East, Montréal, Québec, Canada H1X 2B2
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3
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Mouy H. Colours as aggregation signals in Lepidoptera: Are Heliconius Müllerian mimics? Evol Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-022-10183-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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4
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Abstract
The impact of multitrophic interactions on metacommunity structure, despite extensive theory and modelling/manipulative studies, has remained largely unexplored within naturally occurring metacommunities. We investigated the impacts of mutualistic partners and predators on a butterfly metacommunity, as well as the impacts that local and landscape characteristics have across three trophic levels: flowering plants, butterflies, and butterfly predators. Using data for butterfly diversity/richness, flowering plant diversity/richness, and butterfly predation (on clay butterfly models) across 15 grassland sites, we asked 3 questions: 1) How do mutualist metacommunity structure, predation pressure, and local and regional habitat characteristics affect butterfly metacommunity structure? 2) How do local and regional habitat characteristics affect flowering plant metacommunity structure? 3) How do local and regional habitat characteristics affect predation pressure? Floral diversity and richness had a positive effect on butterfly diversity and richness (Question 1). Site size positively affected floral diversity and richness (Question 2), and through this relationship site size had an indirect positive effect on butterfly diversity and richness (Question 1). In contrast with previous work, no other variables impacted butterfly diversity/richness. This result was particularly surprising for predation pressure: our results suggest that within our study system butterfly community diversity and richness is not strongly impacted by predation. Predator attacks occurred more in larger and more isolated sites (Question 3), suggesting that predators respond more strongly to landscape characteristics than abundance or diversity of butterfly prey species. This decoupling of predation pressure and butterfly communities suggests that conserving and restoring healthy predator populations may not negatively impact butterfly communities. If diverse plant communities are maintained, even small and isolated habitat patches can be valuable for butterfly conservation, which may influence reserve design and habitat restoration strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan C C Gordon
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeremy T Kerr
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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5
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Ogilvie JG, Van Belleghem S, Range R, Papa R, McMillan OW, Chouteau M, Counterman BA. Balanced polymorphisms and their divergence in a Heliconius butterfly. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:18319-18330. [PMID: 35003675 PMCID: PMC8717333 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of mimicry in similarly defended prey is well described by the Müllerian mimicry theory, which predicts the convergence of warning patterns in order to gain the most protection from predators. However, despite this prediction, we can find great diversity of color patterns among Müllerian mimics such as Heliconius butterflies in the neotropics. Furthermore, some species have evolved the ability to maintain multiple distinct warning patterns in single populations, a phenomenon known as polymorphic mimicry. The adaptive benefit of these polymorphisms is questionable since variation from the most common warning patterns is expected to be disadvantageous as novel signals are punished by predators naive to them. In this study, we use artificial butterfly models throughout Central and South America to characterize the selective pressures maintaining polymorphic mimicry in Heliconius doris. Our results highlight the complexity of positive frequency-dependent selection, the principal selective pressure driving convergence among Müllerian mimics, and its impacts on interspecific variation of mimetic warning coloration. We further show how this selection regime can both limit and facilitate the diversification of mimetic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- James G. Ogilvie
- Department of Biological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabamaUSA
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | | | - Ryan Range
- Department of Biological SciencesAuburn UniversityAuburnAlabamaUSA
| | - Riccardo Papa
- Department of BiologyUniversity of Puerto RicoRio PiedrasPuerto Rico
| | | | - Mathieu Chouteau
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA)Université de GuyaneCNRSIFREMERCayenneFrench Guiana
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6
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Mohanty NP, Wagener C, Herrel A, Thaker M. The ecology of sleep in non-avian reptiles. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:505-526. [PMID: 34708504 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Sleep is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom and yet displays considerable variation in its extent and form in the wild. Ecological factors, such as predation, competition, and microclimate, therefore are likely to play a strong role in shaping characteristics of sleep. Despite the potential for ecological factors to influence various aspects of sleep, the ecological context of sleep in non-avian reptiles remains understudied and without systematic direction. In this review, we examine multiple aspects of reptilian sleep, including (i) habitat selection (sleep sites and their spatio-temporal distribution), (ii) individual-level traits, such as behaviour (sleep postures), morphology (limb morphometrics and body colour), and physiology (sleep architecture), as well as (iii) inter-individual interactions (intra- and inter-specific). Throughout, we discuss the evidence of predation, competition, and thermoregulation in influencing sleep traits and the possible evolutionary consequences of these sleep traits for reptile sociality, morphological specialisation, and habitat partitioning. We also review the ways in which sleep ecology interacts with urbanisation, biological invasions, and climate change. Overall, we not only provide a systematic evaluation of the conceptual and taxonomic biases in the existing literature on reptilian sleep, but also use this opportunity to organise the various ecological hypotheses for sleep characteristics. By highlighting the gaps and providing a prospectus of research directions, our review sets the stage for understanding sleep ecology in the natural world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitya P Mohanty
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
| | - Carla Wagener
- Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, 7600, South Africa
| | - Anthony Herrel
- Département Adaptations du Vivant, MECADEV UMR7179 CNRS/MNHN, Paris, France
| | - Maria Thaker
- Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 560 012, India
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7
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Abstract
In true color vision, animals discriminate between light wavelengths, regardless of intensity, using at least two photoreceptors with different spectral sensitivity peaks. Heliconius butterflies have duplicate UV opsin genes, which encode ultraviolet and violet photoreceptors, respectively. In Heliconius erato, only females express the ultraviolet photoreceptor, suggesting females (but not males) can discriminate between UV wavelengths. We tested the ability of H. erato, and two species lacking the violet receptor, Heliconius melpomene and Eueides isabella, to discriminate between 380 and 390 nm, and between 400 and 436 nm, after being trained to associate each stimulus with a sugar reward. We found that only H. erato females have color vision in the UV range. Across species, both sexes show color vision in the blue range. Models of H. erato color vision suggest that females have an advantage over males in discriminating the inner UV-yellow corollas of Psiguria flowers from their outer orange petals. Moreover, previous models ( McCulloch et al., 2017) suggested that H. erato males have an advantage over females in discriminating Heliconius 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-OHK) yellow wing coloration from non-3-OHK yellow wing coloration found in other heliconiines. These results provide some of the first behavioral evidence for female H. erato UV color discrimination in the context of foraging, lending support to the hypothesis ( Briscoe et al., 2010) that the duplicated UV opsin genes function together in UV color vision. Taken together, the sexually dimorphic visual system of H. erato appears to have been shaped by both sexual selection and sex-specific natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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8
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Corral‐Lopez A, Varg JE, Cano‐Cobos YP, Losada R, Realpe E, Outomuro D. Field evidence for colour mimicry overshadowing morphological mimicry. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:698-709. [PMID: 33300609 PMCID: PMC7986869 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Imperfect mimicry may be maintained when the various components of an aposematic signal have different salience for predators. Experimental laboratory studies provide robust evidence for this phenomenon. Yet, evidence from natural settings remains scarce. We studied how natural bird predators assess multiple features in a multicomponent aposematic signal in the Neotropical 'clear wing complex' mimicry ring, dominated by glasswing butterflies. We evaluated two components of the aposematic signal, wing colouration and wing morphology, in a predation experiment based on artificial replicas of glasswing butterflies (model) and Polythoridae damselflies (mimics) in their natural habitat. We also studied the extent of the colour aposematic signal in the local insect community. Finally, we inspected the nanostructures responsible for this convergent colour signal, expected to highly differ between these phylogenetically distinct species. Our results provide direct evidence for a stronger salience of wing colouration than wing morphology, as well as stronger selection on imperfect than in perfect colour mimics. Additionally, investigations of how birds perceive wing colouration of the local insect community provides further evidence that a UV-reflective white colouration is being selected as the colour aposematic signal of the mimicry ring. Using electron microscopy, we also suggest that damselflies have convergently evolved the warning colouration through a pre-adaptation. These findings provide a solid complement to previous experimental evidence suggesting a key influence of the cognitive assessment of predators driving the evolution of aposematic signals and mimicry rings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Corral‐Lopez
- Department of Ethology/ZoologyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research CentreUniversity of British ColumbiaVancouverCanada
| | - Javier Edo Varg
- Section for Animal EcologyDepartment of Ecology and GeneticsEvolutionary Biology CentreUppsala UniversityUppsalaSweden
| | - Yiselle P. Cano‐Cobos
- Laboratorio de Zoología y Ecología AcuáticaDepartamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - Rafael Losada
- Centro de Investigaciones en Microbiología y Parasitología Tropical (CIMPAT)Departamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - Emilio Realpe
- Laboratorio de Zoología y Ecología AcuáticaDepartamento de Ciencias BiológicasUniversidad de los AndesBogotáColombia
| | - David Outomuro
- Section for Animal EcologyDepartment of Ecology and GeneticsEvolutionary Biology CentreUppsala UniversityUppsalaSweden
- Present address:
Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of CincinnatiRieveschl HallCincinnatiOH45221USA
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9
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Chang YM, Hatch KA, Ho MY, Roxburgh SH, Wu YT, Wang YK, Wang SR, You ZX. Roosting Site Usage, Gregarious Roosting and Behavioral Interactions During Roost-assembly of Two Lycaenidae Butterflies. Zool Stud 2020; 59:e10. [PMID: 32760456 DOI: 10.6620/ZS.2020.59-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Lycaenidae is one of the larger of the world's butterfly families, based on number and diversity of species, but knowledge of roosting in this group is sparse. Zizina otis riukuensis and Zizeeria maha okinawana are two small lycaenids that are commonly found in urban settings and widely distributed across much of Asia. We conducted experiments on a university campus to determine the plant species and plant structures commonly used by these two blues when roosting. We also tested the hypothesis that gregarious roosting exists in these two blues by demonstrating the non-random distribution of roosting blues and the tight mapping of their roosts to the spatial distribution of specific plant species and/or specific plant structures, as well as by demonstrating behavioral interactions among individuals during roosting-assembly. We found that both Z. otis and Z. maha roosted primarily on flowers and fruits of Tridax procumbens and Vernonia cinerea. We also found that these blues formed conspicuous roosting aggregations with significant positive associations between the flowers and fruits of both T. procumbens and V. cinerea and the blues. Moreover, our behavioral observations showed that these blues expressed various levels of interaction during roosting gatherings. Based on these findings, we conclude that gregarious roosting exists in both Z. otis and Z. maha. To our knowledge, this paper represents one of the first demonstration of nocturnal gregarious roosting in lycaenids. This study also highlights the importance of institutional estates in providing roosting resources for butterflies in urban ecosystems.
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10
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Arias M, Davey JW, Martin S, Jiggins C, Nadeau N, Joron M, Llaurens V. How do predators generalize warning signals in simple and complex prey communities? Insights from a videogame. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20200014. [PMID: 32070260 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.0014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The persistence of distinct warning signals within and between sympatric mimetic communities is a puzzling evolutionary question because selection favours convergence of colour patterns among toxic species. Such convergence is partly shaped by predators' reaction to similar but not identical stimulus (i.e. generalization behaviour), and generalization by predators is likely to be shaped by the diversity of local prey. However, studying generalization behaviour is generally limited to simple variations of prey colour patterns. Here, we used a computer game played by humans as surrogate predators to investigate generalization behaviours in simple (4 morphs) and complex (10 morphs) communities of unprofitable (associated with a penalty) and profitable butterflies. Colour patterns used in the game are observed in the natural populations of unprofitable butterfly species such as Heliconius numata. Analyses of 449 game participants' behaviours show that players avoided unprofitable prey more readily in simple than in complex communities. However, generalization was observed only in players that faced complex communities, enhancing the protection of profitable prey that looked similar to at least one unprofitable morph. Additionally, similarity among unprofitable prey also reduced attack rates only in complex communities. These results are consistent with previous studies using avian predators but artificial colour patterns and suggest that mimicry is more likely to evolve in complex communities where increases in similarity are more likely to be advantageous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France.,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS-Université de Montpellier, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Université Paul Valéry, 34293 Montpellier 5, France
| | - John W Davey
- Bioscience Technology Facility, Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Simon Martin
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Chris Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Nicola Nadeau
- Molecular Ecology Lab, Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Mathieu Joron
- Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS-Université de Montpellier, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Université Paul Valéry, 34293 Montpellier 5, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles CP 50, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
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11
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Tan EJ, Wilts BD, Tan BTK, Monteiro A. What's in a band? The function of the color and banding pattern of the Banded Swallowtail. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:2021-2029. [PMID: 32128134 PMCID: PMC7042747 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterflies have evolved a diversity of color patterns, but the ecological functions for most of these patterns are still poorly understood. The Banded Swallowtail butterfly, Papilio demolion demolion, is a mostly black butterfly with a greenish-blue band that traverses the wings. The function of this wing pattern remains unknown. Here, we examined the morphology of black and green-blue colored scales, and how the color and banding pattern affects predation risk in the wild. The protective benefits of the transversal band and of its green-blue color were tested via the use of paper model replicas of the Banded Swallowtail with variations in band shape and band color in a full factorial design. A variant model where the continuous transversal green-blue band was shifted and made discontinuous tested the protective benefit of the transversal band, while grayscale variants of the wildtype and distorted band models assessed the protective benefit of the green-blue color. Paper models of the variants and the wildtype were placed simultaneously in the field with live baits. Wildtype models were the least preyed upon compared with all other variants, while gray models with distorted bands suffered the greatest predation. The color and the continuous band of the Banded Swallowtail hence confer antipredator qualities. We propose that the shape of the band hinders detection of the butterfly's true shape through coincident disruptive coloration; while the green color of the band prevents detection of the butterfly from its background via differential blending. Differential blending is aided by the green-blue color being due to pigments rather than via structural coloration. Both green and black scales have identical structures, and the scales follow the Bauplan of pigmented scales documented in other Papilio butterflies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bodo D. Wilts
- Adolphe Merkle InstituteUniversity of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Brent T. K. Tan
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of SingaporeSingapore CitySingapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Yale‐NUS CollegeSingapore CitySingapore
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of SingaporeSingapore CitySingapore
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12
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13
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Finkbeiner SD, Salazar PA, Nogales S, Rush CE, Briscoe AD, Hill RI, Kronforst MR, Willmott KR, Mullen SP. Frequency dependence shapes the adaptive landscape of imperfect Batesian mimicry. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 285:rspb.2017.2786. [PMID: 29618547 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.2786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite more than a century of biological research on the evolution and maintenance of mimetic signals, the relative frequencies of models and mimics necessary to establish and maintain Batesian mimicry in natural populations remain understudied. Here we investigate the frequency-dependent dynamics of imperfect Batesian mimicry, using predation experiments involving artificial butterfly models. We use two geographically distinct populations of Adelpha butterflies that vary in their relative frequencies of a putatively defended model (Adelpha iphiclus) and Batesian mimic (Adelpha serpa). We found that in Costa Rica, where both species share similar abundances, Batesian mimicry breaks down, and predators more readily attack artificial butterfly models of the presumed mimic, A. serpa By contrast, in Ecuador, where A. iphiclus (model) is significantly more abundant than A. serpa (mimic), both species are equally protected from predation. Our results provide compelling experimental evidence that imperfect Batesian mimicry is frequency-dependent on the relative abundance of models and mimics in natural populations, and contribute to the growing body of evidence that complex dynamics, such as seasonality or the availability of alternative prey, influence the evolution of mimetic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA .,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Patricio A Salazar
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Sofía Nogales
- Department of Biology, Pontifica Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Cassidi E Rush
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Ryan I Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, CA 95211, USA
| | - Marcus R Kronforst
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Keith R Willmott
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Sean P Mullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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14
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Seymoure BM, Raymundo A, McGraw KJ, Owen McMillan W, Rutowski RL. Environment-dependent attack rates of cryptic and aposematic butterflies. Curr Zool 2018; 64:663-669. [PMID: 30323845 PMCID: PMC6178784 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zox062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Many organisms have evolved adaptive coloration that reduces their risk of predation. Cryptic coloration reduces the likelihood of detection/recognition by potential predators, while warning or aposematic coloration advertises unprofitability and thereby reduces the likelihood of attack. Although some studies show that aposematic coloration functions better at decreasing attack rate than crypsis, recent work has suggested and demonstrated that crypsis and aposematism are both successful strategies for avoiding predation. Furthermore, the visual environment (e.g., ambient lighting, background) affects the ability for predators to detect prey. We investigated these 2 related hypotheses using 2 well-known visually aposematic species of Heliconius butterflies, which occupy different habitats (open-canopy vs. closed-canopy), and one palatable, cryptic, generalist species Junonia coenia. We tested if the differently colored butterflies differ in attack rates by placing plasticine models of each of the 3 species in 2 different tropical habitats where the butterflies naturally occur: disturbed, open-canopy habitat and forested, closed-canopy habitat. The cryptic model had fewer attacks than one of the aposematic models. Predation rates differed between the 2 habitats, with the open habitat having much higher predation. However, we did not find an interaction between species and habitat type, which is perplexing due to the different aposematic phenotypes naturally occurring in different habitats. Our findings suggest that during the Panamanian dry season avian predation on perched butterflies is not a leading cause in habitat segregation between the 2 aposematic species and demonstrate that cryptically colored animals at rest may be better than aposematic prey at avoiding avian attacks in certain environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett M Seymoure
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA.,School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Andrew Raymundo
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
| | - Kevin J McGraw
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - W Owen McMillan
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama
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15
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Briolat ES, Burdfield-Steel ER, Paul SC, Rönkä KH, Seymoure BM, Stankowich T, Stuckert AMM. Diversity in warning coloration: selective paradox or the norm? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2018; 94:388-414. [PMID: 30152037 PMCID: PMC6446817 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Aposematic theory has historically predicted that predators should select for warning signals to converge on a single form, as a result of frequency‐dependent learning. However, widespread variation in warning signals is observed across closely related species, populations and, most problematically for evolutionary biologists, among individuals in the same population. Recent research has yielded an increased awareness of this diversity, challenging the paradigm of signal monomorphy in aposematic animals. Here we provide a comprehensive synthesis of these disparate lines of investigation, identifying within them three broad classes of explanation for variation in aposematic warning signals: genetic mechanisms, differences among predators and predator behaviour, and alternative selection pressures upon the signal. The mechanisms producing warning coloration are also important. Detailed studies of the genetic basis of warning signals in some species, most notably Heliconius butterflies, are beginning to shed light on the genetic architecture facilitating or limiting key processes such as the evolution and maintenance of polymorphisms, hybridisation, and speciation. Work on predator behaviour is changing our perception of the predator community as a single homogenous selective agent, emphasising the dynamic nature of predator–prey interactions. Predator variability in a range of factors (e.g. perceptual abilities, tolerance to chemical defences, and individual motivation), suggests that the role of predators is more complicated than previously appreciated. With complex selection regimes at work, polytypisms and polymorphisms may even occur in Müllerian mimicry systems. Meanwhile, phenotypes are often multifunctional, and thus subject to additional biotic and abiotic selection pressures. Some of these selective pressures, primarily sexual selection and thermoregulation, have received considerable attention, while others, such as disease risk and parental effects, offer promising avenues to explore. As well as reviewing the existing evidence from both empirical studies and theoretical modelling, we highlight hypotheses that could benefit from further investigation in aposematic species. Finally by collating known instances of variation in warning signals, we provide a valuable resource for understanding the taxonomic spread of diversity in aposematic signalling and with which to direct future research. A greater appreciation of the extent of variation in aposematic species, and of the selective pressures and constraints which contribute to this once‐paradoxical phenomenon, yields a new perspective for the field of aposematic signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle S Briolat
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, U.K
| | - Emily R Burdfield-Steel
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland
| | - Sarah C Paul
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, U.K.,Department of Chemical Ecology, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Katja H Rönkä
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, 40014, Finland.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
| | - Brett M Seymoure
- Department of Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80525, U.S.A.,Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80525, U.S.A
| | - Theodore Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, U.S.A
| | - Adam M M Stuckert
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, 1000 E Fifth St, Greenville, NC 27858, U.S.A
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16
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Walton OC, Stevens M. Avian vision models and field experiments determine the survival value of peppered moth camouflage. Commun Biol 2018; 1:118. [PMID: 30271998 PMCID: PMC6123793 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-018-0126-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal defensive coloration has long provided many important examples of evolution and adaptation. Of these, industrial melanism in the peppered moth is the classic textbook example of evolution in action, whereby dark and pale morphs suffer differential predation in polluted and unpolluted woodland based on their camouflage. Despite extensive work, a striking gap remains in that no study has ever objectively quantified their camouflage or related this directly to predation risk. Here we use image analysis and avian vision models to show that pale individuals more closely match lichen backgrounds than dark morphs. Artificial predation experiments in unpolluted woodland show 21% higher survival rates of pale than melanic individuals. Overall, we provide the strongest direct evidence to date that peppered moth morph frequencies stem from differential camouflage and avian predation, providing key support for this iconic example of natural selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia C Walton
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK.
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17
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Palmer DH, Tan YQ, Finkbeiner SD, Briscoe AD, Monteiro A, Kronforst MR. Experimental field tests of Batesian mimicry in the swallowtail butterfly Papilio polytes. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:7657-7666. [PMID: 30151179 PMCID: PMC6106175 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The swallowtail butterfly Papilio polytes is known for its striking resemblance in wing pattern to the toxic butterfly Pachliopta aristolochiae and is a focal system for the study of mimicry evolution. Papilio polytes females are polymorphic in wing pattern, with mimetic and nonmimetic forms, while males are monomorphic and nonmimetic. Past work invokes selection for mimicry as the driving force behind wing pattern evolution in P. polytes. However, the mimetic relationship between P. polytes and P. aristolochiae is not well understood. In order to test the mimicry hypothesis, we constructed paper replicas of mimetic and nonmimetic P. polytes and P. aristolochiae, placed them in their natural habitat, and measured bird predation on replicas. In initial trials with stationary replicas and plasticine bodies, overall predation was low and we found no differences in predation between replica types. In later trials with replicas mounted on springs and with live mealworms standing in for the butterfly's body, we found less predation on mimetic P. polytes replicas compared to nonmimetic P. polytes replicas, consistent with the predator avoidance benefits of mimicry. While our results are mixed, they generally lend support to the mimicry hypothesis as well as the idea that behavioral differences between the sexes contributed to the evolution of sexually dimorphic mimicry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela H. Palmer
- Committee on Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinois
- Department of Ecology and EvolutionUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinois
| | - Yue Qian Tan
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of SingaporeSingaporeSingapore
| | - Susan D. Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and EvolutionUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinois
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCalifornia
| | - Adriana D. Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaIrvineCalifornia
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological SciencesNational University of SingaporeSingaporeSingapore
| | - Marcus R. Kronforst
- Committee on Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinois
- Department of Ecology and EvolutionUniversity of ChicagoChicagoIllinois
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18
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Forthman M, Weirauch C. Phylogenetic comparative analysis supports aposematic colouration-body size association in millipede assassins (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae). J Evol Biol 2018; 31:1071-1078. [PMID: 29742313 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The diversity of colour patterns and its importance in interactions with the environment make colouration in animals an intriguing research focus. Aposematic colouration is positively correlated with body size in certain groups of animals, suggesting that warning colours are more effective or that crypsis is harder to achieve in larger animals. Surprisingly, this relationship has not been recovered in studies investigating insects, which may have been confounded by a focus on aposematic taxa that are also gregarious. Millipede assassin bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Ectrichodiinae) comprise species with cryptic and aposematic colour patterns across a range of body sizes, are typically solitary as adults and are thus an excellent model for investigating a possible association between colouration and body size. Here, we use a comprehensive phylogeny for Ectrichodiinae, ancestral state reconstruction of colouration, and phylogenetic comparative methods to test for a colouration-body size association. The ancestor of Ectrichodiinae is reconstructed as cryptically coloured, with multiple subsequent transitions between aposematic and cryptic colouration. Aposematic colouration is positively associated with male body length and supports the hypothesis that selection on Ectrichodiinae body size may influence evolutionary transitions between aposematic and cryptic colouration or alternatively that selection for aposematic colouration influences body size evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Forthman
- Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA.,Department of Entomology & Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan D. Watts
- The Center for Conservation BiologyCollege of William and Mary and Virginia Commonwealth UniversityP.O. Box 8795WilliamsburgVA 23187USA
| | - Rodney J. Dyer
- Department of BiologyVirginia Commonwealth University1000 W Cary StreetRichmondVA 23284‐2012USA
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20
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Kristiansen EB, Finkbeiner SD, Hill RI, Prusa L, Mullen SP. Testing the adaptive hypothesis of Batesian mimicry among hybridizing North American admiral butterflies. Evolution 2018; 72:1436-1448. [PMID: 29851081 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Batesian mimicry is characterized by phenotypic convergence between an unpalatable model and a palatable mimic. However, because convergent evolution may arise via alternative evolutionary mechanisms, putative examples of Batesian mimicry must be rigorously tested. Here, we used artificial butterfly facsimiles (N = 4000) to test the prediction that (1) palatable Limenitis lorquini butterflies should experience reduced predation when in sympatry with their putative model, Adelpha californica, (2) protection from predation on L. lorquini should erode outside of the geographical range of the model, and (3) mimetic color pattern traits are more variable in allopatry, consistent with relaxed selection for mimicry. We find support for these predictions, implying that this convergence is the result of selection for Batesian mimicry. Additionally, we conducted mark-recapture studies to examine the effect of mimicry and found that mimics survive significantly longer at sites where the model is abundant. Finally, in contrast to theoretical predictions, we found evidence that the Batesian model (A. californica) is protected from predation outside of its geographic range. We discuss these results considering the ongoing hybridization between L. lorquini and its sister species, L. weidemeyerii, and growing evidence that selection for mimicry predictably leads to a reduction in gene flow between nascent species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan B Kristiansen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
| | - Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Ryan I Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211
| | - Louis Prusa
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California, 95211
| | - Sean P Mullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
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21
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Lövei GL, Ferrante M. A review of the sentinel prey method as a way of quantifying invertebrate predation under field conditions. Insect Sci 2017; 24:528-542. [PMID: 27686246 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Sentinel prey can provide a direct, quantitative measure of predation under field conditions. Live sentinel prey provides more realistic data but rarely allows the partitioning of the total predation pressure; artificial prey is less natural but traces left by different predators are identifiable, making it suitable for comparative studies. We reviewed the available evidence of the use of both types of invertebrate sentinel prey. Fifty-seven papers used real prey, usually measuring predation on a focal (often pest) species, with studies overwhelmingly from North America. The median predation was 25.8% d-1 . Artificial sentinel prey (45 papers) were used in both temperate and tropical areas, placed more above ground than at ground level. The most commonly used artificial prey imitated a caterpillar. Up to 14 predator groups were identified, registering a median of 8.8% d-1 predation; half the studies reported only bird predation. Predation on real prey was higher than on artificial ones, but invertebrate predation was not higher than vertebrate predation. Invertertebrate but not vertebrate predation was negatively related to prey size. Predation near the Equator was not higher than at higher latitudes, nor in cultivated than noncultivated habitats. The use of sentinel prey is not yet standardised in terms of prey size, arrangement, exposure period or data reporting. Due to the simplicity and ease of use of the method, such standardisation may increase the usefulness of comparative studies, contributing to the understanding of the importance and level of predation in various habitats worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor L Lövei
- Department of Agroecology, Flakkebjerg Research Centre, Aarhus University, Forsøgsvej 1, DK-4200 Slagelse, Denmark
| | - Marco Ferrante
- Department of Agroecology, Flakkebjerg Research Centre, Aarhus University, Forsøgsvej 1, DK-4200 Slagelse, Denmark
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22
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Harvey BD, Vanni KN, Shier DM, Grether GF. Experimental test of the mechanism underlying sexual segregation at communal roosts of harvestmen ( Prionostemmaspp.). Ethology 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brigit D. Harvey
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Kaylee N. Vanni
- Institute of the Environment and Sustainability; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Debra M. Shier
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
- San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research; Escondido CA USA
| | - Gregory F. Grether
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology; University of California, Los Angeles; Los Angeles CA USA
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23
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Willmott KR, Robinson Willmott JC, Elias M, Jiggins CD. Maintaining mimicry diversity: optimal warning colour patterns differ among microhabitats in Amazonian clearwing butterflies. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20170744. [PMID: 28539522 PMCID: PMC5454276 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimicry is one of the best-studied examples of adaptation, and recent studies have provided new insights into the role of mimicry in speciation and diversification. Classical Müllerian mimicry theory predicts convergence in warning signal among protected species, yet tropical butterflies are exuberantly diverse in warning colour patterns, even within communities. We tested the hypothesis that microhabitat partitioning in aposematic butterflies and insectivorous birds can lead to selection for different colour patterns in different microhabitats and thus help maintain mimicry diversity. We measured distribution across flight height and topography for 64 species of clearwing butterflies (Ithomiini) and their co-mimics, and 127 species of insectivorous birds, in an Amazon rainforest community. For the majority of bird species, estimated encounter rates were non-random for the two most abundant mimicry rings. Furthermore, most butterfly species in these two mimicry rings displayed the warning colour pattern predicted to be optimal for anti-predator defence in their preferred microhabitats. These conclusions were supported by a field trial using butterfly specimens, which showed significantly different predation rates on colour patterns in two microhabitats. We therefore provide the first direct evidence to support the hypothesis that different mimicry patterns can represent stable, community-level adaptations to differing biotic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Willmott
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | | | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB-UMR 7205-CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, CP50, Paris 75005, France
| | - Chris D Jiggins
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
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24
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Yokoi T, Idogawa N, Kandori I, Nikkeshi A, Watanabe M. The choosing of sleeping position in the overnight aggregation by the solitary bees Amegilla florea urens in Iriomote Island of Japan. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:23. [PMID: 28271178 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1438-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In addition to the process of joining the sleeping aggregation, the choice of sleeping position is an important night-time behaviour of small diurnal insects because of the increased risk for predator attacks as well as bad weather. The aggregation behaviour of the solitary bee Amegilla florea urens was investigated to elucidate the choice of sleeping position on substrates. Male and female constructed single-sex aggregations on hanging leaves during May and June, respectively. Most individuals tended to form aggregations with other individuals while few individuals slept alone. During the aggregation forming, both the number of individuals that tried to join the aggregation and the completion time of aggregation increased with the number of sleeping individuals, whereas the success rate of joining was unaffected. The sleeping positions of subsequent arrivals on the substrates were higher than those of the first arrivals in female aggregations. Therefore, the first female to arrive tended to be located near the bottom of a hanging substrate. Dissecting sleeping females showed that they contained mature oocytes, indicating that sexually mature individuals formed aggregations. In male aggregations, however, we could not find a clear relationship between the position on substrates and the arrival sequence. We suggest that the purpose for sleeping in aggregations might be a dilution effect for nocturnal predation and that the females that finished both nesting and foraging quickly could choose the optimal positions in the aggregation when they arrived on the sleeping substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Yokoi
- Laboratory of Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba city, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan.
| | - Naoto Idogawa
- Laboratory of Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba city, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Ikuo Kandori
- Laboratory of Entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, Kindai University, 3327-204 Nakamachi, Nara city, Nara, 631-8505, Japan
| | - Aoi Nikkeshi
- Laboratory of Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba city, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
| | - Mamoru Watanabe
- Laboratory of Conservation Ecology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba city, Ibaraki, 305-8572, Japan
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25
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Wood LD, Brunnick B, Milton SL. Home Range and Movement Patterns of Subadult Hawksbill Sea Turtles in Southeast Florida. J HERPETOL 2017; 51:58-67. [DOI: 10.1670/15-133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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26
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Arias M, le Poul Y, Chouteau M, Boisseau R, Rosser N, Théry M, Llaurens V. Crossing fitness valleys: empirical estimation of a fitness landscape associated with polymorphic mimicry. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.0391. [PMID: 27122560 PMCID: PMC4855388 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Characterizing fitness landscapes associated with polymorphic adaptive traits enables investigation of mechanisms allowing transitions between fitness peaks. Here, we explore how natural selection can promote genetic mechanisms preventing heterozygous phenotypes from falling into non-adaptive valleys. Polymorphic mimicry is an ideal system to investigate such fitness landscapes, because the direction of selection acting on complex mimetic colour patterns can be predicted by the local mimetic community composition. Using more than 5000 artificial butterflies displaying colour patterns exhibited by the polymorphic Müllerian mimic Heliconius numata, we directly tested the role of wild predators in shaping fitness landscapes. We compared predation rates on mimetic phenotypes (homozygotes at the supergene controlling colour pattern), intermediate phenotypes (heterozygotes), exotic morphs (absent from the local community) and palatable cryptic phenotypes. Exotic morphs were significantly more attacked than local morphs, highlighting predators' discriminatory capacities. Overall, intermediates were attacked twice as much as local homozygotes, suggesting the existence of deep fitness valleys promoting strict dominance and reduced recombination between supergene alleles. By including information on predators' colour perception, we also showed that protection on intermediates strongly depends on their phenotypic similarity to homozygous phenotypes and that ridges exist between similar phenotypes, which may facilitate divergence in colour patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France UMR CNRS 7179, CNRS-MNHN MECADEV, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 1, avenue du petit château, 91800 Brunoy, France
| | - Yann le Poul
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Mathieu Chouteau
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Romain Boisseau
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France Département de Biologie, Ecole Normale supérieure, 75 005 Paris, France
| | - Neil Rosser
- Department of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Marc Théry
- UMR CNRS 7179, CNRS-MNHN MECADEV, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 1, avenue du petit château, 91800 Brunoy, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57, rue Cuvier, 75005 Paris, France
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27
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Abstract
The relationship between plants and insects is influenced by insects' behavioral decisions during foraging and oviposition. In mutualistic pollinators and antagonistic herbivores, past experience (learning) affects such decisions, which ultimately can impact plant fitness. The higher levels of dietary generalism in pollinators than in herbivores may be an explanation for the differences in learning seen between these two groups. Generalist pollinators experience a high level of environmental variation, which we suggest favors associative learning. Larval herbivores employ habituation and sensitization-strategies useful in their less variable environments. Exceptions to these patterns based on habitats, mobility, and life history provide critical tests of current theory. Relevant plant traits should be under selection to be easily learned and remembered in pollinators and difficult to learn in herbivores. Insect learning thereby has the potential to have an important, yet largely unexplored, role in plant-insect coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia L Jones
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853; ,
| | - Anurag A Agrawal
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853; ,
- Department of Entomology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853
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28
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Finkbeiner SD, Fishman DA, Osorio D, Briscoe AD. Ultraviolet and yellow reflectance but not fluorescence is important for visual discrimination of conspecifics by Heliconius erato. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 220:1267-1276. [PMID: 28108668 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.153593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Toxic Heliconius butterflies have yellow hindwing bars that - unlike those of their closest relatives - reflect ultraviolet (UV) and long wavelength light, and also fluoresce. The pigment in the yellow scales is 3-hydroxy-dl-kynurenine (3-OHK), which is found in the hair and scales of a variety of animals. In other butterflies like pierids with color schemes characterized by independent sources of variation in UV and human-visible yellow/orange, behavioral experiments have generally implicated the UV component as most relevant to mate choice. This has not been addressed in Heliconius butterflies, where variation exists in analogous color components, but moreover where fluorescence due to 3-OHK could also contribute to yellow wing coloration. In addition, the potential cost due to predator visibility is largely unknown for the analogous well-studied pierid butterfly species. In field studies with butterfly paper models, we show that both UV and 3-OHK yellow act as signals for H. erato when compared with models lacking UV or resembling ancestral Eueides yellow, respectively, but attack rates by birds do not differ significantly between the models. Furthermore, measurement of the quantum yield and reflectance spectra of 3-OHK indicates that fluorescence does not contribute to the visual signal under broad-spectrum illumination. Our results suggest that the use of 3-OHK pigmentation instead of ancestral yellow was driven by sexual selection rather than predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA .,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City 0843-03092, Panama.,Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Dmitry A Fishman
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Daniel Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9QG, UK
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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Wee JLQ, Monteiro A. Yellow and the Novel Aposematic Signal, Red, Protect Delias Butterflies from Predators. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0168243. [PMID: 28060944 PMCID: PMC5218396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterflies of the South Asian and Australian genus Delias possess striking colours on the ventral wings that are presumed to serve as warning signals to predators. However, this has not been shown empirically. Here we experimentally tested whether the colours of one member of this diverse genus, Delias hyparete, function as aposematic signals. We constructed artificial paper models with either a faithful colour representation of D. hyparete, or with all of its colours converted to grey scale. We also produced models where single colours were left intact, while others were converted to grey-scale or removed entirely. We placed all model types simultaneously in the field, attached to a live mealworm, and measured relative attack rates at three separate field sites. Faithful models of D. hyparete, suffered the least amount of attacks, followed by grey-scale models with unaltered red patches, and by grey-scale models with unaltered yellow patches. We conclude that red and yellow colours function as warning signals. By mapping dorsal and ventral colouration onto a phylogeny of Delias, we observed that yellow and red colours appear almost exclusively on the ventral wing surfaces, and that basal lineages have mostly yellow, white, and black wings, whereas derived lineages contain red colour in addition to the other colours. Red appears to be, thus, a novel adaptive trait in this lineage of butterflies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Liang Qi Wee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
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30
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Finkbeiner SD, Briscoe AD, Mullen SP. Complex dynamics underlie the evolution of imperfect wing pattern convergence in butterflies. Evolution 2017; 71:949-959. [PMID: 28052323 DOI: 10.1111/evo.13165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive radiation is characterized by rapid diversification that is strongly associated with ecological specialization. However, understanding the evolutionary mechanisms fueling adaptive diversification requires a detailed knowledge of how natural selection acts at multiple life-history stages. Butterflies within the genus Adelpha represent one of the largest and most diverse butterfly lineages in the Neotropics. Although Adelpha species feed on an extraordinary diversity of larval hosts, convergent evolution is widespread in this group, suggesting that selection for mimicry may contribute to adaptive divergence among species. To investigate this hypothesis, we conducted predation studies in Costa Rica using artificial butterfly facsimiles. Specifically, we predicted that nontoxic, palatable Adelpha species that do not feed on host plants in the family Rubiaceae would benefit from sharing a locally convergent wing pattern with the presumably toxic Rubiaceae-feeding species via reduced predation. Contrary to expectations, we found that the presumed mimic was attacked significantly more than its locally convergent model at a frequency paralleling attack rates on both novel and palatable prey. Although these data reveal the first evidence for protection from avian predators by the supposed toxic, Rubiaceae-feeding Adelpha species, we conclude that imprecise mimetic patterns have high costs for Batesian mimics in the tropics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
| | - Adriana D Briscoe
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697
| | - Sean P Mullen
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215
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31
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Arias M, Meichanetzoglou A, Elias M, Rosser N, de-Silva DL, Nay B, Llaurens V. Variation in cyanogenic compounds concentration within a Heliconius butterfly community: does mimicry explain everything? BMC Evol Biol 2016; 16:272. [PMID: 27978820 PMCID: PMC5160018 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-016-0843-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Aposematic species advertise their unpalatability using warning signals such as striking coloration. Given that predators need to sample aposematic prey to learn that they are unprofitable, prey with similar warning signals share the cost of predator learning. This reduction in predation risk drives evolutionary convergence of warning signals among chemically defended prey (Müllerian mimicry). Whether such warning signal convergence is associated to similar defence levels among co-mimics is still an open question that has rarely been tested in wild populations. We quantified variation in cyanide-based (CN) chemical protection in wild caught individuals of eight aposematic Heliconius butterfly species belonging to four sympatric mimicry rings. We then tested for correlations between chemical protection and ecological species-specific traits. Results We report significant differences in CN concentrations both within and between sympatric species, even when accounting for the phylogeny, and within and between mimicry rings, even after considering inter-specific variation. We found significant correlations between CN concentration and both hostplant specialization and gregarious behaviour in adults and larvae. However, differences in CN concentrations were not significantly linked to mimicry ring abundance, although the two most toxic species did belong to the rarest mimicry ring. Conclusions Our results suggest that mimicry can explain the variation in the levels of chemical defence to a certain extent, although other ecological factors are also relevant to the evolution of such variability. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0843-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Aimilia Meichanetzoglou
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.,Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, UMR 7245 MNHN-CNRS, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle and CNRS, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 54, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Neil Rosser
- Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Donna Lisa de-Silva
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Bastien Nay
- Unité Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, UMR 7245 MNHN-CNRS, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle and CNRS, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 54, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- Institut Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, UMR 7205 MNHN-CNRS-EPHE-UPMC- Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Bâtiment d'entomologie, CP050, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France
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32
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DELL'AGLIO DENISED, STEVENS MARTIN, JIGGINS CHRISD. Avoidance of an aposematically coloured butterfly by wild birds in a tropical forest. Ecol Entomol 2016; 41:627-632. [PMID: 27708481 PMCID: PMC5026159 DOI: 10.1111/een.12335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
1. Birds are considered to be the primary selective agents for warning colouration in butterflies, and select for aposematic mimicry by learning to avoid brightly coloured prey after unpleasant experiences. It has long been thought that bright colouration plays an important role in promoting the avoidance of distasteful prey by birds. 2. The hypothesis that warning colouration facilitates memorability and promotes predator avoidance was tested by means of a field experiment using distasteful model butterflies. Artificial butterflies with a Heliconius colour pattern unknown to local birds were generated using bird vision models, either coloured or achromatic, and hung in tree branches in a tropical forest. Two sequential trials were conducted at each site to test avoidance by naïve and experienced predators. 3. There was a significant reduction in predation in the second trial. Also, coloured models were attacked less than achromatic models. Specifically, coloured butterflies were attacked significantly less in the second trial, but there was no significant decrease in predation on achromatic models. 4. The present results imply an important role for colour in enhancing aversion of aposematic butterflies. It has also been demonstrated that previous experience of distasteful prey can lead to enhanced avoidance in subsequent trials, supporting mimicry theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- DENISE D. DELL'AGLIO
- Butterfly Genetics Group, Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeU.K.
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
| | - MARTIN STEVENS
- Centre for Ecology & Conservation, College of Life & Environmental SciencesUniversity of ExeterPenrynU.K.
| | - CHRIS D. JIGGINS
- Butterfly Genetics Group, Department of ZoologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeU.K.
- Smithsonian Tropical Research InstitutePanama CityPanama
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33
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Mérot C, Le Poul Y, Théry M, Joron M. Refining mimicry: phenotypic variation tracks the local optimum. J Anim Ecol 2016; 85:1056-69. [PMID: 27003742 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Müllerian mimicry between chemically defended preys is a textbook example of natural selection favouring phenotypic convergence onto a shared warning signal. Studies of mimicry have concentrated on deciphering the ecological and genetic underpinnings of dramatic switches in mimicry association, producing a well-known mosaic distribution of mimicry patterns across geography. However, little is known about the accuracy of resemblance between natural comimics when the local phenotypic optimum varies. In this study, using analyses of wing shape, pattern and hue, we quantify multimodal phenotypic similarity between butterfly comimics sharing the so-called postman pattern in different localities with varying species composition. We show that subtle but consistent variation between populations of the localized species, Heliconius timareta thelxinoe, enhance resemblance to the abundant comimics which drive the mimicry in each locality. Those results suggest that rarer comimics track the changes in the phenotypic optimum caused by gradual changes in the composition of the mimicry community, providing insights into the process by which intraspecific diversity of mimetic pattern may arise. Furthermore, our results suggest a multimodal evolution of similarity, with coordinated convergence in different features of the phenotype such as wing outline, pattern and hue. Finally, multilocus genotyping allows estimating local hybridization rates between H. timareta and comimic H. melpomene in different populations, raising the hypothesis that mimicry refinement between closely related comimics may be enhanced by adaptive introgression at loci modifying the accuracy of resemblance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Mérot
- Institut de Systématique Evolution et Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS - MNHN - UPMC - EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Yann Le Poul
- Institut de Systématique Evolution et Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS - MNHN - UPMC - EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Marc Théry
- Mécanismes Adaptatifs et Evolution, UMR 7179 CNRS, Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 1 avenue du petit château, 91800, Brunoy, France
| | - Mathieu Joron
- Institut de Systématique Evolution et Biodiversité, UMR 7205 CNRS - MNHN - UPMC - EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 45 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France.,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 CNRS - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul Valéry Montpellier - EPHE, 1919 route de Mende, 34293, Montpellier 5, France
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34
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Abstract
Both theoretical and laboratory research suggests that many prey animals should live in a solitary, dispersed distribution unless they lack repellent defences such as toxins, venoms and stings. Chemically defended prey may, by contrast, benefit substantially from aggregation because spatial localization may cause rapid predator satiation on prey toxins, protecting many individuals from attack. If repellent defences promote aggregation of prey, they also provide opportunities for new social interactions; hence the consequences of defence may be far reaching for the behavioural biology of the animal species. There is an absence of field data to support predictions about the relative costs and benefits of aggregation. We show here for the first time using wild predators that edible, undefended artificial prey do indeed suffer heightened death rates if they are aggregated; whereas chemically defended prey may benefit substantially by grouping. We argue that since many chemical defences are costly to prey, aggregation may be favoured because it makes expensive defences much more effective, and perhaps allows grouped individuals to invest less in chemical defences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward A M Curley
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Hannah E Rowley
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
| | - Michael P Speed
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behaviour, Institute of Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, UK
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35
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Lehtonen J, Jaatinen K. Safety in numbers: the dilution effect and other drivers of group life in the face of danger. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2016; 70:449-58. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-016-2075-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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36
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Flores EE, Stevens M, Moore AJ, Rowland HM, Blount JD. Body size but not warning signal luminance influences predation risk in recently metamorphosed poison frogs. Ecol Evol 2015; 5:4603-16. [PMID: 26668726 PMCID: PMC4670055 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.1731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Revised: 08/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
During early development, many aposematic species have bright and conspicuous warning appearance, but have yet to acquire chemical defenses, a phenotypic state which presumably makes them vulnerable to predation. Body size and signal luminance in particular are known to be sensitive to variation in early nutrition. However, the relative importance of these traits as determinants of predation risk in juveniles is not known. To address this question, we utilized computer‐assisted design (CAD) and information on putative predator visual sensitivities to produce artificial models of postmetamorphic froglets that varied in terms of body size and signal luminance. We then deployed the artificial models in the field and measured rates of attack by birds and unknown predators. Our results indicate that body size was a significant predictor of artificial prey survival. Rates of attack by bird predators were significantly higher on smaller models. However, predation by birds did not differ between artificial models of varying signal luminance. This suggests that at the completion of metamorphosis, smaller froglets may be at a selective disadvantage, potentially because predators can discern they have relatively low levels of chemical defense compared to larger froglets. There is likely to be a premium on efficient foraging, giving rise to rapid growth and the acquisition of toxins from dietary sources in juvenile poison frogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric E Flores
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK ; Sistema Nacional de Investigacion de Panama (SNI) Panama
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
| | - Allen J Moore
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK ; Department of Genetics University of Georgia 30602 Athens Georgia
| | | | - Jonathan D Blount
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation College of Life & Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Penryn UK
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37
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Seymoure BM, Aiello A. Keeping the band together: evidence for false boundary disruptive coloration in a butterfly. J Evol Biol 2015; 28:1618-24. [PMID: 26109438 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.12681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
There is a recent surge of evidence supporting disruptive coloration, in which patterns break up the animal's outline through false edges or boundaries, increasing survival in animals by reducing predator detection and/or preventing recognition. Although research has demonstrated that false edges are successful for reducing predation of prey, research into the role of internal false boundaries (i.e. stripes and bands) in reducing predation remains warranted. Many animals have stripes and bands that may function disruptively. Here, we test the possible disruptive function of wing band patterning in a butterfly, Anartia fatima, using artificial paper and plasticine models in Panama. We manipulated the band so that one model type had the band shifted to the wing margin (nondisruptive treatment) and another model had a discontinuous band located on the wing margin (discontinuous edge treatment). We kept the natural wing pattern to represent the false boundary treatment. Across all treatment groups, we standardized the area of colour and used avian visual models to confirm a match between manipulated and natural wing colours. False boundary models had higher survival than either the discontinuous edge model or the nondisruptive model. There was no survival difference between the discontinuous edge model and the nondisruptive model. Our results demonstrate the importance of wing bands in reducing predation on butterflies and show that markings set in from the wing margin can reduce predation more effectively than marginal bands and discontinuous marginal patterns. This study demonstrates an adaptive benefit of having stripes and bands.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Seymoure
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.,Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancón, Panamá, Republic of Panama
| | - A Aiello
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Ancón, Panamá, Republic of Panama
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38
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hanh A. Han
- School of Life Sciences; Arizona State University; Tempe AZ USA
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39
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Broly P, Deneubourg JL. Behavioural Contagion Explains Group Cohesion in a Social Crustacean. PLoS Comput Biol 2015; 11:e1004290. [PMID: 26067565 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In gregarious species, social interactions maintain group cohesion and the associated adaptive values of group living. The understanding of mechanisms leading to group cohesion is essential for understanding the collective dynamics of groups and the spatio-temporal distribution of organisms in environment. In this view, social aggregation in terrestrial isopods represents an interesting model due to its recurrence both in the field and in the laboratory. In this study, and under a perturbation context, we experimentally tested the stability of groups of woodlice according to group size and time spent in group. Our results indicate that the response to the disturbance of groups decreases with increases in these two variables. Models neglecting social effects cannot reproduce experimental data, attesting that cohesion of aggregation in terrestrial isopods is partly governed by a social effect. In particular, models involving calmed and excited individuals and a social transition between these two behavioural states more accurately reproduced our experimental data. Therefore, we concluded that group cohesion (and collective response to stimulus) in terrestrial isopods is governed by a transitory resting state under the influence of density of conspecifics and time spent in group. Lastly, we discuss the nature of direct or indirect interactions possibly implicated. Terrestrial isopods, commonly named woodlice or pill bugs, are commonly distributed soil-dwelling arthropods, particularly important in soils as macro-decomposers of leaf litter. Many species of woodlice are synanthropic and, for this reason, are easily observable in gardens, urban parks or composts. Harmless organisms and easy to raise, the woodlice represent an excellent pedagogical model in many schools, so that children may perform on these organisms various behavioral tests such as light escape or introduction to social behaviors. Indeed, woodlice are gregarious species and exhibit long phases of aggregation. Here, we propose a model based on simple rules involving calmed and excited individuals and a social transition between these two behavioural states to explain group cohesion in woodlice. This contagion model well reproduces our experimental results. Our approach provides important clues for the understanding of how social group effects and collective mechanisms may govern the stability and dispersion of aggregates in gregarious arthropods.
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40
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Finkbeiner SD, Briscoe AD, Reed RD. Warning signals are seductive: relative contributions of color and pattern to predator avoidance and mate attraction in Heliconius butterflies. Evolution 2014; 68:3410-20. [PMID: 25200939 DOI: 10.1111/evo.12524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Visual signaling in animals can serve many uses, including predator deterrence and mate attraction. In many cases, signals used to advertise unprofitability to predators are also used for intraspecific communication. Although aposematism and mate choice are significant forces driving the evolution of many animal phenotypes, the interplay between relevant visual signals remains little explored. Here, we address this question in the aposematic passion-vine butterfly Heliconius erato by using color- and pattern-manipulated models to test the contributions of different visual features to both mate choice and warning coloration. We found that the relative effectiveness of a model at escaping predation was correlated with its effectiveness at inducing mating behavior, and in both cases wing color was more predictive of presumptive fitness benefits than wing pattern. Overall, however, a combination of the natural (local) color and pattern was most successful for both predator deterrence and mate attraction. By exploring the relative contributions of color versus pattern composition in predation and mate preference studies, we have shown how both natural and sexual selection may work in parallel to drive the evolution of specific animal color patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan D Finkbeiner
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, California, 92697; Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, 0843-03092, Panama.
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41
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42
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Abstract
Animals use color vision for a number of tasks including food localization, object recognition, communication, and mate selection. For these and other specific behaviors involving the use of color cues, models that quantify color discriminability have been developed. These models take as input the photoreceptor spectral sensitivities of the animal and radiance spectra of the surfaces of interest. These spectra are usually acquired using spectroscopic instruments that collect point-by-point data and can easily yield signals contaminated with neighboring colors if not operated carefully. In this paper, I present an equation that relates the optical fiber diameter and numerical aperture to the measurement angle and distance needed to record uncontaminated spectra. I demonstrate its utility by testing the discriminability of two solid colors for the visual systems of a dichromatic ferret and a trichromatic frog in (1) a conspicuous scenario where the colors have little spectral overlap and (2) a perfect camouflage scenario where the spectra are identical. This equation is derived from geometrical optics and is applicable to spectroscopic measurements in all fields.
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43
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Tseng HY, Lin CP, Hsu JY, Pike DA, Huang WS. The functional significance of aposematic signals: geographic variation in the responses of widespread lizard predators to colourful invertebrate prey. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91777. [PMID: 24614681 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Conspicuous colouration can evolve as a primary defence mechanism that advertises unprofitability and discourages predatory attacks. Geographic overlap is a primary determinant of whether individual predators encounter, and thus learn to avoid, such aposematic prey. We experimentally tested whether the conspicuous colouration displayed by Old World pachyrhynchid weevils (Pachyrhynchus tobafolius and Kashotonus multipunctatus) deters predation by visual predators (Swinhoe’s tree lizard; Agamidae, Japalura swinhonis). During staged encounters, sympatric lizards attacked weevils without conspicuous patterns at higher rates than weevils with intact conspicuous patterns, whereas allopatric lizards attacked weevils with intact patterns at higher rates than sympatric lizards. Sympatric lizards also attacked masked weevils at lower rates, suggesting that other attributes of the weevils (size/shape/smell) also facilitate recognition. Allopatric lizards rapidly learned to avoid weevils after only a single encounter, and maintained aversive behaviours for more than three weeks. The imperfect ability of visual predators to recognize potential prey as unpalatable, both in the presence and absence of the aposematic signal, may help explain how diverse forms of mimicry exploit the predator’s visual system to deter predation.
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44
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Chatelain M, Halpin C, Rowe C. Ambient temperature influences birds' decisions to eat toxic prey. Anim Behav 2013; 86:733-740. [PMID: 24109148 PMCID: PMC3791422 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Aposematic prey warn predators of their toxicity using conspicuous signals. However, predators regularly include aposematic prey in their diets, particularly when they are in a poor energetic state and in need of nutrients. We investigated whether or not an environmental factor, ambient temperature, could change the energetic state of predators and lead to an increased intake of prey that they know to contain toxins. We found that European starlings, Sturnus vulgaris, increased their consumption of mealworm, Tenebrio molitor, prey containing quinine (a mild toxin) when the ambient temperature was reduced below their thermoneutral zone from 20 °C to 6 °C. The birds differed in their sensitivity to changes in ambient temperature, with heavier birds increasing the number of toxic prey they ate more rapidly with decreasing temperature compared to birds with lower body mass. This could have been the result of their requiring more nutrients at lower temperatures or being better able to detoxify quinine. Taken together, our results suggest that conspicuous coloration may be more costly at lower temperatures, and that aposematic prey may need to invest more in chemical defences as temperatures decline. Our study also provides novel insights into what factors affect birds' decisions to eat toxic prey, and demonstrates that selection pressures acting on prey defences can vary with changing temperature across days, seasons, climes, and potentially in response to climate change. We investigated the effect of temperature on birds' decisions to eat toxic prey. As it got cooler, birds were more likely to eat prey containing toxins. Heavier birds were more sensitive to changes in temperature. Selection pressures on prey defences will change over days, seasons and climes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Chatelain
- Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - C.G. Halpin
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle, U.K
| | - C. Rowe
- Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle, U.K
- Correspondence: C. Rowe, Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Henry Wellcome Building, Framlington Place, Newcastle NE2 4HH, U.K.
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45
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Abstract
The forest canopy offers a vertical gradient across which variation in predation pressure implies variation in refuge quality for arthropods. Direct and indirect experimental approaches were combined to assess whether canopy strata differ in ability to offer refuge to various arthropod groups. Vertical heterogeneity in impact of avian predators was quantified using exclosure cages in the understory, lower, mid, and upper canopy of a north-temperate deciduous forest near Montreal, Quebec. Bait trials were completed in the same strata to investigate the effects of invertebrate predators. Exclusion of birds yielded higher arthropod densities across all strata, although treatment effects were small for some taxa. Observed gradients in predation pressure were similar for both birds and invertebrate predators; the highest predation pressure was observed in the understory and decreased with height. Our findings support a view of the forest canopy that is heterogeneous with respect to arthropod refuge from natural enemies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen R Aikens
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University , Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec , Canada
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Marshall HH, Carter AJ, Rowcliffe JM, Cowlishaw G. Linking social foraging behaviour with individual time budgets and emergent group-level phenomena. Anim Behav 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Stuart YE, Dappen N, Losin N. Inferring predator behavior from attack rates on prey-replicas that differ in conspicuousness. PLoS One 2012; 7:e48497. [PMID: 23119039 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral ecologists and evolutionary biologists have long studied how predators respond to prey items novel in color and pattern. Because a predatory response is influenced by both the predator’s ability to detect the prey and a post-detection behavioral response, variation among prey types in conspicuousness may confound inference about post-prey-detection predator behavior. That is, a relatively high attack rate on a given prey type may result primarily from enhanced conspicuousness and not predators’ direct preference for that prey. Few studies, however, account for such variation in conspicuousness. In a field experiment, we measured predation rates on clay replicas of two aposematic forms of the poison dart frog Dendrobates pumilio, one novel and one familiar, and two cryptic controls. To ask whether predators prefer or avoid a novel aposematic prey form independently of conspicuousness differences among replicas, we first modeled the visual system of a typical avian predator. Then, we used this model to estimate replica contrast against a leaf litter background to test whether variation in contrast alone could explain variation in predator attack rate. We found that absolute predation rates did not differ among color forms. Predation rates relative to conspicuousness did, however, deviate significantly from expectation, suggesting that predators do make post-detection decisions to avoid or attack a given prey type. The direction of this deviation from expectation, though, depended on assumptions we made about how avian predators discriminate objects from the visual background. Our results show that it is important to account for prey conspicuousness when investigating predator behavior and also that existing models of predator visual systems need to be refined.
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