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Bindellini G, Wolniewicz AS, Miedema F, Dal Sasso C, Scheyer TM. Postcranial anatomy of Besanosaurus leptorhynchus (Reptilia: Ichthyosauria) from the Middle Triassic Besano Formation of Monte San Giorgio (Italy/Switzerland), with implications for reconstructing the swimming styles of Triassic ichthyosaurs. SWISS JOURNAL OF PALAEONTOLOGY 2024; 143:32. [PMID: 39263671 PMCID: PMC11384637 DOI: 10.1186/s13358-024-00330-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/13/2024]
Abstract
Besanosaurus leptorhynchus Dal Sasso & Pinna, 1996 was originally described on the basis of a single complete fossil specimen excavated near Besano (Italy). However, a recent taxonomic revision and re-examination of the cranial osteology allowed for the assignment of five additional specimens to the taxon. Here, we analyse, describe and discuss the postcranial anatomy of Besanosaurus leptorhynchus in detail. The size of the specimens examined herein ranged from slightly more than one meter to eight meters. Overall, several diagnostic character states for this taxon are proposed, demonstrating a mosaic of plesiomorphic and derived features. This is best exemplified by the limbs, which show very rounded elements in the forelimbs, and pedal phalanges with retained rudimentary shafts. We suggest that the widely spaced phalanges in the forefins of Besanosaurus leptorhynchus were embedded in a fibrocartilage-rich connective tissue, like in modern cetaceans. We also review the similarities of Besanosaurus with Pessopteryx and Pessosaurus, allowing us to conclude that Besanosaurus is not a junior synonym of either of the two taxa. Lastly, to test the swimming capabilities of Besanosaurus leptorhynchus, we expanded on a previously published study focussing on reconstructing the swimming styles of ichthyosaurs. Besanosaurus leptorhynchus was found to possess a peculiar locomotory mode, somewhat intermediate between anguilliform swimmers, such as Cymbospondylus and Utatsusaurus, and some shastasaur-grade (e.g., Guizhouichthyosaurus) and early-diverging euichthyosaurian (e.g., Californosaurus) ichthyosaurs. Based on our results, we furthermore suggest that mixosaurids acquired their characteristic body profile (dorsal fin and forefins that are distinctly enlarged compared to the hindfins) independently and convergently to the one that later appeared in Parvipelvia. Moreover, the different swimming styles inferred for Cymbospondylus, Mixosauridae, and Besanosaurus strengthen the earlier hypothesis of niche partitioning among these three distinct ichthyosaur taxa from the Besano Formation. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13358-024-00330-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Bindellini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra "Ardito Desio", Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Sapienza Università di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrzej S Wolniewicz
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China
- Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Feiko Miedema
- Staatliches Museum Für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Cristiano Dal Sasso
- Sezione di Paleontologia dei Vertebrati, Museo di Storia Naturale di Milano, Milan, Italy
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Zhao RJ. Estimating body volumes and surface areas of animals from cross-sections. PeerJ 2024; 12:e17479. [PMID: 38827295 PMCID: PMC11141563 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.17479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Body mass and surface area are among the most important biological properties, but such information is lacking for some extant organisms and most extinct species. Numerous methods have been developed for body size estimation of animals for this reason. There are two main categories of mass-estimating approaches: extant-scaling approaches and volumetric-density approaches. Extant-scaling approaches determine the relationships between linear skeletal measurements and body mass using regression equations. Volumetric-density approaches, on the other hand, are all based on models. The models are of various types, including physical models, 2D images, and 3D virtual reconstructions. Once the models are constructed, their volumes are acquired using Archimedes' Principle, math formulae, or 3D software. Then densities are assigned to convert volumes to masses. The acquisition of surface area is similar to volume estimation by changing math formulae or software commands. This article presents a new 2D volumetric-density approach called the cross-sectional method (CSM). Methods The CSM integrates biological cross-sections to estimate volume and surface area accurately. It requires a side view or dorsal/ventral view image, a series of cross-sectional silhouettes and some measurements to perform the calculation. To evaluate the performance of the CSM, two other 2D volumetric-density approaches (Graphic Double Integration (GDI) and Paleomass) are compared with it. Results The CSM produces very accurate results, with average error rates around 0.20% in volume and 1.21% in area respectively. It has higher accuracy than GDI or Paleomass in estimating the volumes and areas of irregular-shaped biological structures. Discussion Most previous 2D volumetric-density approaches assume an elliptical or superelliptical approximation of animal cross-sections. Such an approximation does not always have good performance. The CSM processes the true profiles directly rather than approximating and can deal with any shape. It can process objects that have gradually changing cross-sections. This study also suggests that more attention should be paid to the careful acquisition of cross-sections of animals in 2D volumetric-density approaches, otherwise serious errors may be introduced during the estimations. Combined with 2D modeling techniques, the CSM can be considered as an alternative to 3D modeling under certain conditions. It can reduce the complexity of making reconstructions while ensuring the reliability of the results.
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Sprumont H, Allione F, Schwab F, Wang B, Mucignat C, Lunati I, Scheyer T, Ijspeert A, Jusufi A. Asymmetric fin shape changes swimming dynamics of ancient marine reptiles' soft robophysical models. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2024; 19:046005. [PMID: 38626775 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ad3f5e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/09/2024]
Abstract
Animals have evolved highly effective locomotion capabilities in terrestrial, aerial, and aquatic environments. Over life's history, mass extinctions have wiped out unique animal species with specialized adaptations, leaving paleontologists to reconstruct their locomotion through fossil analysis. Despite advancements, little is known about how extinct megafauna, such as the Ichthyosauria one of the most successful lineages of marine reptiles, utilized their varied morphologies for swimming. Traditional robotics struggle to mimic extinct locomotion effectively, but the emerging soft robotics field offers a promising alternative to overcome this challenge. This paper aims to bridge this gap by studyingMixosauruslocomotion with soft robotics, combining material modeling and biomechanics in physical experimental validation. Combining a soft body with soft pneumatic actuators, the soft robotic platform described in this study investigates the correlation between asymmetrical fins and buoyancy by recreating the pitch torque generated by extinct swimming animals. We performed a comparative analysis of thrust and torque generated byCarthorhyncus,Utatsusaurus,Mixosaurus,Guizhouichthyosaurus, andOphthalmosaurustail fins in a flow tank. Experimental results suggest that the pitch torque on the torso generated by hypocercal fin shapes such as found in model systems ofGuizhouichthyosaurus,MixosaurusandUtatsusaurusproduce distinct ventral body pitch effects able to mitigate the animal's non-neutral buoyancy. This body pitch control effect is particularly pronounced inGuizhouichthyosaurus, which results suggest would have been able to generate high ventral pitch torque on the torso to compensate for its positive buoyancy. By contrast, homocercal fin shapes may not have been conducive for such buoyancy compensation, leaving torso pitch control to pectoral fins, for example. Across the range of the actuation frequencies of the caudal fins tested, resulted in oscillatory modes arising, which in turn can affect the for-aft thrust generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadrien Sprumont
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
- Biorobotics Laboratory, School of Engineering, EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Federico Allione
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Fabian Schwab
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Bingcheng Wang
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
- Institute of Neuroinformatics, University of Zuerich and ETH Zuerich, 8057 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Claudio Mucignat
- Laboratory for Computational Engineering, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Ivan Lunati
- Laboratory for Computational Engineering, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Torsten Scheyer
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, 8006 Zuerich, Switzerland
| | - Auke Ijspeert
- Biorobotics Laboratory, School of Engineering, EPFL, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ardian Jusufi
- Soft Kinetic Group, Engineering Sciences Department, Empa, 8600 Zuerich, Switzerland
- Institute of Neuroinformatics, University of Zuerich and ETH Zuerich, 8057 Zuerich, Switzerland
- Paläontologisches Institut und Museum, Universität Zürich, 8006 Zuerich, Switzerland
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Zhang Z, Wang Q, Zhang S. Review of Computational Fluid Dynamics Analysis in Biomimetic Applications for Underwater Vehicles. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:79. [PMID: 38392125 PMCID: PMC10886954 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/20/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Biomimetics, which draws inspiration from nature, has emerged as a key approach in the development of underwater vehicles. The integration of this approach with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has further propelled research in this field. CFD, as an effective tool for dynamic analysis, contributes significantly to understanding and resolving complex fluid dynamic problems in underwater vehicles. Biomimetics seeks to harness innovative inspiration from the biological world. Through the imitation of the structure, behavior, and functions of organisms, biomimetics enables the creation of efficient and unique designs. These designs are aimed at enhancing the speed, reliability, and maneuverability of underwater vehicles, as well as reducing drag and noise. CFD technology, which is capable of precisely predicting and simulating fluid flow behaviors, plays a crucial role in optimizing the structural design of underwater vehicles, thereby significantly enhancing their hydrodynamic and kinematic performances. Combining biomimetics and CFD technology introduces a novel approach to underwater vehicle design and unveils broad prospects for research in natural science and engineering applications. Consequently, this paper aims to review the application of CFD technology in the biomimicry of underwater vehicles, with a primary focus on biomimetic propulsion, biomimetic drag reduction, and biomimetic noise reduction. Additionally, it explores the challenges faced in this field and anticipates future advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of CNC Equipment Reliability (Ministry of Education), School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Qigan Wang
- Key Laboratory of CNC Equipment Reliability (Ministry of Education), School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Shujun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of CNC Equipment Reliability (Ministry of Education), School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China
- School of Computing and Engineering, Gloucestershire University, Cheltenham GL50 2HR, UK
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5
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Bianucci G, Lambert O, Urbina M, Merella M, Collareta A, Bennion R, Salas-Gismondi R, Benites-Palomino A, Post K, de Muizon C, Bosio G, Di Celma C, Malinverno E, Pierantoni PP, Villa IM, Amson E. A heavyweight early whale pushes the boundaries of vertebrate morphology. Nature 2023; 620:824-829. [PMID: 37532931 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06381-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
The fossil record of cetaceans documents how terrestrial animals acquired extreme adaptations and transitioned to a fully aquatic lifestyle1,2. In whales, this is associated with a substantial increase in maximum body size. Although an elongate body was acquired early in cetacean evolution3, the maximum body mass of baleen whales reflects a recent diversification that culminated in the blue whale4. More generally, hitherto known gigantism among aquatic tetrapods evolved within pelagic, active swimmers. Here we describe Perucetus colossus-a basilosaurid whale from the middle Eocene epoch of Peru. It displays, to our knowledge, the highest degree of bone mass increase known to date, an adaptation associated with shallow diving5. The estimated skeletal mass of P. colossus exceeds that of any known mammal or aquatic vertebrate. We show that the bone structure specializations of aquatic mammals are reflected in the scaling of skeletal fraction (skeletal mass versus whole-body mass) across the entire disparity of amniotes. We use the skeletal fraction to estimate the body mass of P. colossus, which proves to be a contender for the title of heaviest animal on record. Cetacean peak body mass had already been reached around 30 million years before previously assumed, in a coastal context in which primary productivity was particularly high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Bianucci
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Olivier Lambert
- D.O. Terre et Histoire de la Vie, Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mario Urbina
- Departamento de Paleontología de Vertebrados, Museo de Historia Natural-Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú
| | - Marco Merella
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Alberto Collareta
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università di Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Rebecca Bennion
- D.O. Terre et Histoire de la Vie, Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Brussels, Belgium
- Evolution & Diversity Dynamics Lab, UR Geology, Université de Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi
- Departamento de Paleontología de Vertebrados, Museo de Historia Natural-Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú
- Facultad de Ciencias y Filosofía/Centro de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral y Sostenible, Laboratorios de Investigación y Desarrollo, Universitad Peruana Cayetano Heredia Lima, Lima, Perú
| | - Aldo Benites-Palomino
- Departamento de Paleontología de Vertebrados, Museo de Historia Natural-Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú
- Department of Paleontology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaas Post
- Natuurhistorisch Museum Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christian de Muizon
- Département Origines et Évolution, CR2P (CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université), Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Giulia Bosio
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Ambiente e della Terra, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Claudio Di Celma
- School of Science and Technology, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Elisa Malinverno
- Dipartimento di Scienze dell'Ambiente e della Terra, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | | | | | - Eli Amson
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany.
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Bicknell RDC, Schmidt M, Rahman IA, Edgecombe GD, Gutarra S, Daley AC, Melzer RR, Wroe S, Paterson JR. Raptorial appendages of the Cambrian apex predator Anomalocaris canadensis are built for soft prey and speed. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230638. [PMID: 37403497 PMCID: PMC10320336 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The stem-group euarthropod Anomalocaris canadensis is one of the largest Cambrian animals and is often considered the quintessential apex predator of its time. This radiodont is commonly interpreted as a demersal hunter, responsible for inflicting injuries seen in benthic trilobites. However, controversy surrounds the ability of A. canadensis to use its spinose frontal appendages to masticate or even manipulate biomineralized prey. Here, we apply a new integrative computational approach, combining three-dimensional digital modelling, kinematics, finite-element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to rigorously analyse an A. canadensis feeding appendage and test its morphofunctional limits. These models corroborate a raptorial function, but expose inconsistencies with a capacity for durophagy. In particular, FEA results show that certain parts of the appendage would have experienced high degrees of plastic deformation, especially at the endites, the points of impact with prey. The CFD results demonstrate that outstretched appendages produced low drag and hence represented the optimal orientation for speed, permitting acceleration bursts to capture prey. These data, when combined with evidence regarding the functional morphology of its oral cone, eyes, body flaps and tail fan, suggest that A. canadensis was an agile nektonic predator that fed on soft-bodied animals swimming in a well-lit water column above the benthos. The lifestyle of A. canadensis and that of other radiodonts, including plausible durophages, suggests that niche partitioning across this clade influenced the dynamics of Cambrian food webs, impacting on a diverse array of organisms at different sizes, tiers and trophic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Russell D. C. Bicknell
- Palaeoscience Research Centre, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale 2351, Australia
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Michel Schmidt
- Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Bavarian Natural History Collections, Munich, Germany
- Yunnan Key Laboratory for Palaeobiology, Institute of Palaeontology, Yunnan University, North Cuihu Road 2, Kunming 650091, People's Republic of China
| | - Imran A. Rahman
- The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
- Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Oxford OX1 3PW, UK
| | | | - Susana Gutarra
- The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Allison C. Daley
- Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Roland R. Melzer
- Bavarian State Collection of Zoology, Bavarian Natural History Collections, Munich, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Biocenter, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
- GeoBio-Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Stephen Wroe
- Palaeoscience Research Centre, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale 2351, Australia
- Function, Evolution and Anatomy Research Lab, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales 2351, Australia
| | - John R. Paterson
- Palaeoscience Research Centre, School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale 2351, Australia
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7
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Esteve J, Hughes NC. Developmental and functional controls on enrolment in an ancient, extinct arthropod. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230871. [PMID: 37312547 PMCID: PMC10265026 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional models reveal how the mechanics of exoskeletal enrolment changed during the development of a model organism for insights into ancient arthropod development, the 429-million-year-old trilobite Aulacopleura koninckii. Changes in the number, size and allocation of segments within the trunk, coupled with the need to maintain effective exoskeletal shielding of soft tissue during enrolment, necessitated a transition in enrolment style about the onset of mature growth. During an earlier growth phase, enrolment was sphaeroidal, with the venter of the trunk fitting exactly against that of the head. In later growth, if lateral exoskeletal encapsulation was to be maintained trunk length proportions did not permit such exact fitting, requiring an alternative, non-sphaeoridal enrolment style. Our study favours the adoption of a posture in later growth in which the posterior trunk extended beyond the front of the head. This change in enrolment accommodated a pattern of notable variation in the number of mature trunk segments, well known to characterize the development of this species. It suggests how an animal whose early segmental development was remarkably precisely controlled was able to realize the marked variation in mature segment number that was related, apparently, to life in a physically challenging, reduced oxygen setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Esteve
- Departamento de Geodinámica, Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de CC. Geológicas, UniversidadComplutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Nigel C. Hughes
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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8
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Jamison-Todd S, Moon BC, Rowe AJ, Williams M, Benton MJ. Dietary niche partitioning in Early Jurassic ichthyosaurs from Strawberry Bank. J Anat 2022; 241:1409-1423. [PMID: 36175086 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Jurassic ichthyosaurs dominated upper trophic levels of marine ecosystems. Many species coexisted alongside each another, and it is uncertain whether they competed for the same array of food or divided dietary resources, each specializing in different kinds of prey. Here, we test whether feeding differences existed between species, applying finite element analysis to ichthyosaurs for the first time. We examine two juvenile ichthyosaur specimens, referred to Hauffiopteryx typicus and Stenopterygius triscissus, from the Strawberry Bank Lagerstätte, a shallow marine environment from the Early Jurassic of southern England (Toarcian, ~183 Ma). Snout and cranial robusticity differ between the species, with S. triscissus having a more robust snout and cranium and specializing in slow biting of hard prey, and H. typicus with its slender snout specializing in fast, but weaker bites on fast-moving, but soft prey. The two species did not differ in muscle forces, but stress distributions varied in the nasal area, reflecting differences when biting at different points along the tooth row: the more robustly snouted Stenopterygius resisted increases or shifts in stress distribution when the bite point was shifted from the posterior to the mid-point of the tooth row, but the slender-snouted Hauffiopteryx showed shifts and increases in stress distributions between these two bite points. The differences in cranial morphology, dentition and inferred stresses between the two species suggest adaptations for dietary niche partitioning.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Benjamin C Moon
- Bristol Palaeobiology Group, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Andre J Rowe
- Bristol Palaeobiology Group, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Matt Williams
- Bath Royal Literary and Scientific Institution, Bath, UK
| | - Michael J Benton
- Bristol Palaeobiology Group, School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Blasiak R, Jouffray JB, Amon DJ, Moberg F, Claudet J, Søgaard Jørgensen P, Pranindita A, Wabnitz CCC, Österblom H. A forgotten element of the blue economy: marine biomimetics and inspiration from the deep sea. PNAS NEXUS 2022; 1:pgac196. [PMID: 36714844 PMCID: PMC9802412 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The morphology, physiology, and behavior of marine organisms have been a valuable source of inspiration for solving conceptual and design problems. Here, we introduce this rich and rapidly expanding field of marine biomimetics, and identify it as a poorly articulated and often overlooked element of the ocean economy associated with substantial monetary benefits. We showcase innovations across seven broad categories of marine biomimetic design (adhesion, antifouling, armor, buoyancy, movement, sensory, stealth), and use this framing as context for a closer consideration of the increasingly frequent focus on deep-sea life as an inspiration for biomimetic design. We contend that marine biomimetics is not only a "forgotten" sector of the ocean economy, but has the potential to drive appreciation of nonmonetary values, conservation, and stewardship, making it well-aligned with notions of a sustainable blue economy. We note, however, that the highest ambitions for a blue economy are that it not only drives sustainability, but also greater equity and inclusivity, and conclude by articulating challenges and considerations for bringing marine biomimetics onto this trajectory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Blasiak
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | | | - Diva J Amon
- SpeSeas, D'Abadie, Trinidad and Tobago
- Marine Science Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Fredrik Moberg
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joachim Claudet
- National Center for Scientific Research, PSL Université Paris, CRIOBE, CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Maison de l'Océan, 195 rue Saint-Jacques, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Peter Søgaard Jørgensen
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- The Global Economic Dynamics and the Biosphere Academy Program, Royal Swedish Academy of Science, 104 05 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Agnes Pranindita
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Colette C C Wabnitz
- Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
- Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, The University of British Columbia, 2202 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T1Z4, Canada
| | - Henrik Österblom
- Stockholm Resilience Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
- South American Institute for Resilience and Sustainability Studies, CP 20200 Maldonado, Uruguay
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10
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Gutarra S, Stubbs TL, Moon BC, Palmer C, Benton MJ. Large size in aquatic tetrapods compensates for high drag caused by extreme body proportions. Commun Biol 2022; 5:380. [PMID: 35484197 PMCID: PMC9051157 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03322-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Various Mesozoic marine reptile lineages evolved streamlined bodies and efficient lift-based swimming, as seen in modern aquatic mammals. Ichthyosaurs had low-drag bodies, akin to modern dolphins, but plesiosaurs were strikingly different, with long hydrofoil-like limbs and greatly variable neck and trunk proportions. Using computational fluid dynamics, we explore the effect of this extreme morphological variation. We find that, independently of their body fineness ratio, plesiosaurs produced more drag than ichthyosaurs and modern cetaceans of equal mass due to their large limbs, but these differences were not significant when body size was accounted for. Additionally, necks longer than twice the trunk length can substantially increase the cost of forward swimming, but this effect was cancelled out by the evolution of big trunks. Moreover, fast rates in the evolution of neck proportions in the long-necked elasmosaurs suggest that large trunks might have released the hydrodynamic constraints on necks thus allowing their extreme enlargement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Gutarra
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK.
- Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK.
| | - Thomas L Stubbs
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Benjamin C Moon
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Colin Palmer
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Michael J Benton
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
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11
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Figueirido B, Serrano FJ, Pérez-Ramos A, Esteban JM, Ferrón HG, Martín-Serra A. Body-axis organization in tetrapods: a model-system to disentangle the developmental origins of convergent evolution in deep time. Biol Lett 2022; 18:20220047. [PMID: 35382583 PMCID: PMC8984341 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2022.0047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Convergent evolution is a central concept in evolutionary theory but the underlying mechanism has been largely debated since On the Origin of Species. Previous hypotheses predict that developmental constraints make some morphologies more likely to arise than others and natural selection discards those of the lowest fitness. However, the quantification of the role and strength of natural selection and developmental constraint in shaping convergent phenotypes on macroevolutionary timescales is challenging because the information regarding performance and development is not directly available. Accordingly, current knowledge of how embryonic development and natural selection drive phenotypic evolution in vertebrates has been extended from studies performed at short temporal scales. We propose here the organization of the tetrapod body-axis as a model system to investigate the developmental origins of convergent evolution over hundreds of millions of years. The quantification of the primary developmental mechanisms driving body-axis organization (i.e. somitogenesis, homeotic effects and differential growth) can be inferred from vertebral counts, and recent techniques of three-dimensional computational biomechanics have the necessary potential to reveal organismal performance even in fossil forms. The combination of both approaches offers a novel and robust methodological framework to test competing hypotheses on the functional and developmental drivers of phenotypic evolution and evolutionary convergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Borja Figueirido
- Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - Francisco J. Serrano
- Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, 29071-Málaga, Spain
- Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County; Exposition Boulevard, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA
| | - Alejandro Pérez-Ramos
- Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - Juan Miguel Esteban
- Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, 29071-Málaga, Spain
| | - Humberto G. Ferrón
- Instituto Cavanilles de Biodiversidad y Biologia Evolutiva, Universitat de Valencia, 46980-Paterna, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alberto Martín-Serra
- Departamento de Ecología y Geología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Málaga, 29071-Málaga, Spain
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12
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Sander PM, Griebeler EM, Klein N, Juarbe JV, Wintrich T, Revell LJ, Schmitz L. Early giant reveals faster evolution of large body size in ichthyosaurs than in cetaceans. Science 2021; 374:eabf5787. [PMID: 34941418 DOI: 10.1126/science.abf5787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
[Figure: see text].
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Affiliation(s)
- P Martin Sander
- Abteilung Paläontologie, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany.,The Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA
| | - Eva Maria Griebeler
- Institut für Organismische und Molekulare Evolutionsbiologie, Evolutionäre Ökologie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz, 55099 Mainz, Germany
| | - Nicole Klein
- Abteilung Paläontologie, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Jorge Velez Juarbe
- Department of Mammalogy, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA
| | - Tanja Wintrich
- Abteilung Paläontologie, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Universität Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany.,Anatomisches Institut, Universität Bonn, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Liam J Revell
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA 02125, USA.,Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Lars Schmitz
- The Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA 90007, USA.,W.M. Keck Science Department of Claremont McKenna, Scripps, and Pitzer Colleges, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
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13
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Gutarra S, Rahman IA. The locomotion of extinct secondarily aquatic tetrapods. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:67-98. [PMID: 34486794 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The colonisation of freshwater and marine ecosystems by land vertebrates has repeatedly occurred in amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals over the course of 300 million years. Functional interpretations of the fossil record are crucial to understanding the forces shaping these evolutionary transitions. Secondarily aquatic tetrapods have acquired a suite of anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations to locomotion in water. However, much of this information is lost for extinct clades, with fossil evidence often restricted to osteological data and a few extraordinary specimens with soft tissue preservation. Traditionally, functional morphology in fossil secondarily aquatic tetrapods was investigated through comparative anatomy and correlation with living functional analogues. However, in the last two decades, biomechanics in palaeobiology has experienced a remarkable methodological shift. Anatomy-based approaches are increasingly rigorous, informed by quantitative techniques for analysing shape. Moreover, the incorporation of physics-based methods has enabled objective tests of functional hypotheses, revealing the importance of hydrodynamic forces as drivers of evolutionary innovation and adaptation. Here, we present an overview of the latest research on the locomotion of extinct secondarily aquatic tetrapods, with a focus on amniotes, highlighting the state-of-the-art experimental approaches used in this field. We discuss the suitability of these techniques for exploring different aspects of locomotory adaptation, analysing their advantages and limitations and laying out recommendations for their application, with the aim to inform future experimental strategies. Furthermore, we outline some unexplored research avenues that have been successfully deployed in other areas of palaeobiomechanical research, such as the use of dynamic models in feeding mechanics and terrestrial locomotion, thus providing a new methodological synthesis for the field of locomotory biomechanics in extinct secondarily aquatic vertebrates. Advances in imaging technology and three-dimensional modelling software, new developments in robotics, and increased availability and awareness of numerical methods like computational fluid dynamics make this an exciting time for analysing form and function in ancient vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Gutarra
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, U.K.,Department of Earth Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, U.K
| | - Imran A Rahman
- Department of Earth Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, U.K.,Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PW, U.K
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14
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López-Aguirre C, Hand SJ, Koyabu D, Tu VT, Wilson LAB. Phylogeny and foraging behaviour shape modular morphological variation in bat humeri. J Anat 2020; 238:1312-1329. [PMID: 33372711 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Bats show a remarkable ecological diversity that is reflected both in dietary and foraging guilds (FGs). Cranial ecomorphological adaptations linked to diet have been widely studied in bats, using a variety of anatomical, computational and mathematical approaches. However, foraging-related ecomorphological adaptations and the concordance between cranial and postcranial morphological adaptations remain unexamined in bats and limited to the interpretation of traditional aerodynamic properties of the wing (e.g. wing loading [WL] and aspect ratio [AR]). For this reason, the postcranial ecomorphological diversity in bats and its drivers remain understudied. Using 3D virtual modelling and geometric morphometrics (GMM), we explored the phylogenetic, ecological and biological drivers of humeral morphology in bats, evaluating the presence and magnitude of modularity and integration. To explore decoupled patterns of variation across the bone, we analysed whole-bone shape, diaphyseal and epiphyseal shape. We also tested whether traditional aerodynamic wing traits correlate with humeral shape. By studying 37 species from 20 families (covering all FGs and 85% of dietary guilds), we found similar patterns of variation in whole-bone and diaphyseal shape and unique variation patterns in epiphyseal shape. Phylogeny, diet and FG significantly correlated with shape variation at all levels, whereas size only had a significant effect on epiphyseal morphology. We found a significant phylogenetic signal in all levels of humeral shape. Epiphyseal shape significantly correlated with wing AR. Statistical support for a diaphyseal-epiphyseal modular partition of the humerus suggests a functional partition of shape variability. Our study is the first to show within-structure modular morphological variation in the appendicular skeleton of any living tetrapod. Our results suggest that diaphyseal shape correlates more with phylogeny, whereas epiphyseal shape correlates with diet and FG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camilo López-Aguirre
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Suzanne J Hand
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Daisuke Koyabu
- Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong.,Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Vuong Tan Tu
- Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam.,Graduate University of Science and Technology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Laura A B Wilson
- Earth and Sustainability Science Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,School of Archaeology & Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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15
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Jacobs ML, Martill DM. A new ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur from the Upper Jurassic (Early Tithonian) Kimmeridge Clay of Dorset, UK, with implications for Late Jurassic ichthyosaur diversity. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0241700. [PMID: 33296370 PMCID: PMC7725355 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0241700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A new ophthalmosaurid ichthyosaur, Thalassodraco etchesi gen. et sp. nov., from the Upper Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay Formation of Dorset, UK is described. The specimen, a partial, articulated skull and anterior thorax in the Etches Collection of Kimmeridge, Dorset, is exceptionally well preserved on a slab of laminated coccolith limestone and has been expertly prepared. It comprises a near complete skull in articulation with associated anterior vertebral column and dorsal ribs, complete pectoral girdle, fully exposed left forelimb, and some elements of the right forelimb. Other elements present, including an ischiopubis are preserved on separate slabs. Presumed rapid burial of the anterior portion of the specimen in the coccolith substrate has preserved a number of ossified ligaments lying across the vertebral column and associated ribs as well as stomach contents and decayed internal organs. Aspects of the dentition, skull roof bones and the forelimb configuration distinguishes the new specimen from previously described Late Jurassic ichthyosaurs. Autopmorphies for T. etchesi include a large rounded protuberance on the supratemporal bone; a thin L-shaped lachrymal, with a steeply curved posterior border; ~ 70 teeth on the upper tooth row, and deep anterior dorsal ribs. A well resolved phylogenetic analysis shows T. etchesi as a member of a basal clade within Ophthalmosauridae comprising Nannopterygius, Gengasaurus, Paraophthalmosaurus and Thalassodraco. The new specimen adds to the diversity of the Ichthyopterygia of the Kimmeridge Clay Formation and emphasises the important contribution of amateur collectors in palaeontology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L. Jacobs
- School of the Environment, Geography and Geosciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
- Department of Geosciences, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States of America
| | - David M. Martill
- School of the Environment, Geography and Geosciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
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16
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Body dimensions of the extinct giant shark Otodus megalodon: a 2D reconstruction. Sci Rep 2020; 10:14596. [PMID: 32883981 PMCID: PMC7471939 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-71387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Inferring the size of extinct animals is fraught with danger, especially when they were much larger than their modern relatives. Such extrapolations are particularly risky when allometry is present. The extinct giant shark †Otodus megalodon is known almost exclusively from fossilised teeth. Estimates of †O. megalodon body size have been made from its teeth, using the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) as the only modern analogue. This can be problematic as the two species likely belong to different families, and the position of the †Otodus lineage within Lamniformes is unclear. Here, we infer †O. megalodon body dimensions based on anatomical measurements of five ecologically and physiologically similar extant lamniforms: Carcharodon carcharias, Isurus oxyrinchus, Isurus paucus, Lamna ditropis and Lamna nasus. We first assessed for allometry in all analogues using linear regressions and geometric morphometric analyses. Finding no evidence of allometry, we made morphological extrapolations to infer body dimensions of †O. megalodon at different sizes. Our results suggest that a 16 m †O. megalodon likely had a head ~ 4.65 m long, a dorsal fin ~ 1.62 m tall and a tail ~ 3.85 m high. Morphometric analyses further suggest that its dorsal and caudal fins were adapted for swift predatory locomotion and long-swimming periods.
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17
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Gutarra S, Moon BC, Rahman IA, Palmer C, Lautenschlager S, Brimacombe AJ, Benton MJ. Effects of body plan evolution on the hydrodynamic drag and energy requirements of swimming in ichthyosaurs. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20182786. [PMID: 30836867 PMCID: PMC6458325 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Ichthyosaurs are an extinct group of fully marine tetrapods that were well adapted to aquatic locomotion. During their approximately 160 Myr existence, they evolved from elongate and serpentine forms into stockier, fish-like animals, convergent with sharks and dolphins. Here, we use computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to quantify the impact of this transition on the energy demands of ichthyosaur swimming for the first time. We run computational simulations of water flow using three-dimensional digital models of nine ichthyosaurs and an extant functional analogue, a bottlenose dolphin, providing the first quantitative evaluation of ichthyosaur hydrodynamics across phylogeny. Our results show that morphology did not have a major effect on the drag coefficient or the energy cost of steady swimming through geological time. We show that even the early ichthyosaurs produced low levels of drag for a given volume, comparable to those of a modern dolphin, and that deep 'torpedo-shaped' bodies did not reduce the cost of locomotion. Our analysis also provides important insight into the choice of scaling parameters for CFD applied to swimming mechanics, and underlines the great influence of body size evolution on ichthyosaur locomotion. A combination of large bodies and efficient swimming modes lowered the cost of steady swimming as ichthyosaurs became increasingly adapted to a pelagic existence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susana Gutarra
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Benjamin C. Moon
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Imran A. Rahman
- Oxford University Museum of Natural History, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PW, UK
| | - Colin Palmer
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Stephan Lautenschlager
- School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Alison J. Brimacombe
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Michael J. Benton
- School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Life Sciences Building, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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