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Degabriel M, Valeva S, Boisset S, Henry T. Pathogenicity and virulence of Francisella tularensis. Virulence 2023; 14:2274638. [PMID: 37941380 PMCID: PMC10653695 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2023.2274638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Tularaemia is a zoonotic disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium, Francisella tularensis. Depending on its entry route into the organism, F. tularensis causes different diseases, ranging from life-threatening pneumonia to less severe ulceroglandular tularaemia. Various strains with different geographical distributions exhibit different levels of virulence. F. tularensis is an intracellular bacterium that replicates primarily in the cytosol of the phagocytes. The main virulence attribute of F. tularensis is the type 6 secretion system (T6SS) and its effectors that promote escape from the phagosome. In addition, F. tularensis has evolved a peculiar envelope that allows it to escape detection by the immune system. In this review, we cover tularaemia, different Francisella strains, and their pathogenicity. We particularly emphasize the intracellular life cycle, associated virulence factors, and metabolic adaptations. Finally, we present how F. tularensis largely escapes immune detection to be one of the most infectious and lethal bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Degabriel
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, Univ Lyon, LYON, France
| | - Stanimira Valeva
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, Univ Lyon, LYON, France
| | - Sandrine Boisset
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, Univ Lyon, LYON, France
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CHU Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, UMR5075, Institut de Biologie Structurale, Grenoble, France
| | - Thomas Henry
- CIRI, Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Inserm U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, Univ Lyon, LYON, France
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de Vries MC, Hoeve-Bakker BJA, van den Beld MJC, Hendriks ACA, Harpal ASD, Noomen RCEA, Reubsaet FAG. Identification of Francisella tularensis Subspecies in a Clinical Setting Using MALDI-TOF MS: An In-House Francisella Library and Biomarkers. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11040905. [PMID: 37110328 PMCID: PMC10146885 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11040905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Francisella tularensis is a zoonotic bacterium that is endemic in large parts of the world. It is absent in the standard library of the most applied matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) systems: the Vitek MS and the Bruker Biotyper system. The additional Bruker MALDI Biotyper Security library contains F. tularensis without subspecies differentiation. The virulence of F. tularensis differs between the subspecies. The F. tularensis subspecies (ssp.) tularensis is highly pathogenic, whereas the subspecies holarctica displays lower virulence and subspecies novicida and F. tularensis ssp. mediasiatica are hardly virulent. To differentiate the Francisellaceae and the F. tularensis-subspecies, an in-house Francisella library was built with the Bruker Biotyper system and validated together with the existing Bruker databases. In addition, specific biomarkers were defined based on the main spectra of the Francisella strains supplemented with in silico genome data. Our in-house Francisella library accurately differentiates the F. tularensis subspecies and the other Francisellaceae. The biomarkers correctly differentiate the various species within the genus Francisella and the F. tularensis subspecies. These MALDI-TOF MS strategies can successfully be applied in a clinical laboratory setting as a fast and specific method to identify F. tularensis to subspecies level.
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Update on Accepted Novel Bacterial Isolates Derived from Human Clinical Specimens and Taxonomic Revisions Published in 2020 and 2021. J Clin Microbiol 2023; 61:e0028222. [PMID: 36533910 PMCID: PMC9879126 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00282-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of factors, including microbiome analyses and the increased utilization of whole-genome sequencing in the clinical microbiology laboratory, has contributed to the explosion of novel prokaryotic species discovery, as well as bacterial taxonomy revision. This review attempts to summarize such changes relative to human clinical specimens that occurred in 2020 and 2021, per primary publication in the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology or acceptance on Validation Lists published by the International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. Of particular significance among valid and effectively published taxa within the past 2 years were novel Corynebacterium spp., coagulase-positive staphylococci, Pandoraea spp., and members of family Yersiniaceae. Noteworthy taxonomic revisions include those within the Bacillus and Lactobacillus genera, family Staphylococcaceae (including unifications of subspecies designations to species level taxa), Elizabethkingia spp., and former members of Clostridium spp. and Bacteroides spp. Revisions within the Brucella genus have the potential to cause deleterious effects unless the relevance of such changes is properly communicated by microbiologists to stakeholders in clinical practice, infection prevention, and public health.
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Wagner DM, Birdsell DN, McDonough RF, Nottingham R, Kocos K, Celona K, Özsürekci Y, Öhrman C, Karlsson L, Myrtennäs K, Sjödin A, Johansson A, Keim PS, Forsman M, Sahl JW. Genomic characterization of Francisella tularensis and other diverse Francisella species from complex samples. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0273273. [PMID: 36223396 PMCID: PMC9555625 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0273273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Francisella tularensis, the bacterium that causes the zoonosis tularemia, and its genetic near neighbor species, can be difficult or impossible to cultivate from complex samples. Thus, there is a lack of genomic information for these species that has, among other things, limited the development of robust detection assays for F. tularensis that are both specific and sensitive. The objective of this study was to develop and validate approaches to capture, enrich, sequence, and analyze Francisella DNA present in DNA extracts generated from complex samples. RNA capture probes were designed based upon the known pan genome of F. tularensis and other diverse species in the family Francisellaceae. Probes that targeted genomic regions also present in non-Francisellaceae species were excluded, and probes specific to particular Francisella species or phylogenetic clades were identified. The capture-enrichment system was then applied to diverse, complex DNA extracts containing low-level Francisella DNA, including human clinical tularemia samples, environmental samples (i.e., animal tissue and air filters), and whole ticks/tick cell lines, which was followed by sequencing of the enriched samples. Analysis of the resulting data facilitated rigorous and unambiguous confirmation of the detection of F. tularensis or other Francisella species in complex samples, identification of mixtures of different Francisella species in the same sample, analysis of gene content (e.g., known virulence and antimicrobial resistance loci), and high-resolution whole genome-based genotyping. The benefits of this capture-enrichment system include: even very low target DNA can be amplified; it is culture-independent, reducing exposure for research and/or clinical personnel and allowing genomic information to be obtained from samples that do not yield isolates; and the resulting comprehensive data not only provide robust means to confirm the presence of a target species in a sample, but also can provide data useful for source attribution, which is important from a genomic epidemiology perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Wagner
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Dawn N. Birdsell
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Ryelan F. McDonough
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Roxanne Nottingham
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Karisma Kocos
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Celona
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Yasemin Özsürekci
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Caroline Öhrman
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Linda Karlsson
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Kerstin Myrtennäs
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Andreas Sjödin
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Johansson
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Paul S. Keim
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
| | - Mats Forsman
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jason W. Sahl
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona, United States of America
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Öhrman C, Sahl JW, Sjödin A, Uneklint I, Ballard R, Karlsson L, McDonough RF, Sundell D, Soria K, Bäckman S, Chase K, Brindefalk B, Sozhamannan S, Vallesi A, Hägglund E, Ramirez-Paredes JG, Thelaus J, Colquhoun D, Myrtennäs K, Birdsell D, Johansson A, Wagner DM, Forsman M. Reorganized Genomic Taxonomy of Francisellaceae Enables Design of Robust Environmental PCR Assays for Detection of Francisella tularensis. Microorganisms 2021; 9:146. [PMID: 33440900 PMCID: PMC7826819 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, an increasing diversity of species has been recognized within the family Francisellaceae. Unfortunately, novel isolates are sometimes misnamed in initial publications or multiple sources propose different nomenclature for genetically highly similar isolates. Thus, unstructured and occasionally incorrect information can lead to confusion in the scientific community. Historically, detection of Francisella tularensis in environmental samples has been challenging due to the considerable and unknown genetic diversity within the family, which can result in false positive results. We have assembled a comprehensive collection of genome sequences representing most known Francisellaceae species/strains and restructured them according to a taxonomy that is based on phylogenetic structure. From this structured dataset, we identified a small number of genomic regions unique to F. tularensis that are putatively suitable for specific detection of this pathogen in environmental samples. We designed and validated specific PCR assays based on these genetic regions that can be used for the detection of F. tularensis in environmental samples, such as water and air filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Öhrman
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Jason W. Sahl
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - Andreas Sjödin
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Ingrid Uneklint
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Rebecca Ballard
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - Linda Karlsson
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Ryelan F. McDonough
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - David Sundell
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Kathleen Soria
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - Stina Bäckman
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Kitty Chase
- US Army Medical Research Institute, Fort Detrick, MD 21702, USA;
| | - Björn Brindefalk
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Shanmuga Sozhamannan
- Logistics Management Institute supporting Defense Biological Product Assurance Office (DBPAO) Joint Project Lead, CBRND Enabling Biotechnologies (JPL CBRND EB), Frederick, MD 21702, USA;
| | - Adriana Vallesi
- School of Biosciences and Veterinary Medicine, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy;
| | - Emil Hägglund
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Jose Gustavo Ramirez-Paredes
- Ridgeway Biologicals Limited a Ceva Santé Animale Company, Units 1-3 Old Station Business Park, Compton, Berkshire, England RG20 6NE, UK;
| | - Johanna Thelaus
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Duncan Colquhoun
- Fish Health Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Pb 750 Sentrum, 23 N-0106 Oslo, Norway;
| | - Kerstin Myrtennäs
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
| | - Dawn Birdsell
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - Anders Johansson
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Clinical Bacteriology, and Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, SE-901 85 Umeå, Sweden;
| | - David M. Wagner
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (J.W.S.); (R.B.); (R.F.M.); (K.S.); (D.B.); (D.M.W.)
| | - Mats Forsman
- CBRN Defence and Security, Swedish Defence Research Agency, FOI, SE 901 82 Umeå, Sweden; (C.Ö.); (A.S.); (I.U.); (L.K.); (D.S.); (S.B.); (B.B.); (E.H.); (J.T.); (K.M.)
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Kumar R, Bröms JE, Sjöstedt A. Exploring the Diversity Within the Genus Francisella - An Integrated Pan-Genome and Genome-Mining Approach. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1928. [PMID: 32849479 PMCID: PMC7431613 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Pan-genome analysis is a powerful method to explore genomic heterogeneity and diversity of bacterial species. Here we present a pan-genome analysis of the genus Francisella, comprising a dataset of 63 genomes and encompassing clinical as well as environmental isolates from distinct geographic locations. To determine the evolutionary relationship within the genus, we performed phylogenetic whole-genome studies utilizing the average nucleotide identity, average amino acid identity, core genes and non-recombinant loci markers. Based on the analyses, the phylogenetic trees obtained identified two distinct clades, A and B and a diverse cluster designated C. The sizes of the pan-, core-, cloud-, and shell-genomes of Francisella were estimated and compared to those of two other facultative intracellular pathogens, Legionella and Piscirickettsia. Francisella had the smallest core-genome, 692 genes, compared to 886 and 1,732 genes for Legionella and Piscirickettsia respectively, while the pan-genome of Legionella was more than twice the size of that of the other two genera. Also, the composition of the Francisella Type VI secretion system (T6SS) was analyzed. Distinct differences in the gene content of the T6SS were identified. In silico approaches performed to identify putative substrates of these systems revealed potential effectors targeting the cell wall, inner membrane, cellular nucleic acids as well as proteins, thus constituting attractive targets for site-directed mutagenesis. The comparative analysis performed here provides a comprehensive basis for the assessment of the phylogenomic relationship of members of the genus Francisella and for the identification of putative T6SS virulence traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajender Kumar
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jeanette E Bröms
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Anders Sjöstedt
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Ramirez-Paredes JG, Larsson P, Thompson KD, Penman DJ, Busse HJ, Öhrman C, Sjödin A, Soto E, Richards RH, Adams A, Colquhoun DJ. Reclassification of Francisella noatunensis subsp. orientalis Ottem et al. 2009 as Francisella orientalis sp. nov., Francisella noatunensis subsp. chilensis subsp. nov. and emended description of Francisella noatunensis. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2020; 70:2034-2048. [PMID: 32160147 DOI: 10.1099/ijsem.0.004009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Francisella noatunensis is a fastidious facultative intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes 'piscine francisellosis', a serious disease affecting both marine and fresh water farmed and wild fish worldwide. Currently two F. noatunensis subspecies are recognized, i.e. F. noatunensis subsp. noatunensis and F. noatunensis subsp. orientalis. In the present study, the taxonomy of F. noatunensis was revisited using a polyphasic approach, including whole genome derived parameters such as digital DNA-DNA hybridization, whole genome average nucleotide identity (wg-ANIm), whole genome phylogenetic analysis, whole genome G+C content, metabolic fingerprinting and chemotaxonomic analyses. The results indicated that isolates belonging to F. noatunensis subsp. orientalis represent a phenotypically and genetically homogenous taxon, clearly distinguishable from F. noatunensis subsp. noatunensis that fulfils requirements for separate species status. We propose, therefore, elevation of F. noatunensis subsp. orientalis to the species rank as Francisella orientalis sp. nov. with the type strain remaining as Ehime-1T (DSM 21254T=LMG 24544T). Furthermore, we identified sufficient phenotypic and genetic differences between F. noatunensis subsp. noatunensis recovered from diseased farmed Atlantic salmon in Chile and those isolated from wild and farmed Atlantic cod in Northern Europe to warrant proposal of the Chilean as a novel F. noatunensis subspecies, i.e. Francisella noatunensis subsp. chilensis subsp. nov. with strain PQ1106T (CECT 9798T=NCTC14375T) as the type strain. Finally, we emend the description of F. noatunensis by including further metabolic information and the description of atypical strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Gustavo Ramirez-Paredes
- Ridgeway Biologicals Ltd. a Ceva Santé Animale Company, Units 1-3 Old Station Business Park, Compton, Berkshire, England, RG20 6NE, UK
- Institute of Aquaculture, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, FK9 4LA, UK
- Present address: Ridgeway Biologicals Ltd. a Ceva Santé Animale Company, Units 1-3 Old Station Business Park, Compton, Berkshire, England, RG20 6NE, UK
| | - Pär Larsson
- Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), CBRN Defence and Security, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Medical Biosciences, Umea University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Kim D Thompson
- Aquaculture Research Group, Moredun Research Institute, Edinburgh, Scotland, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - David J Penman
- Institute of Aquaculture, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Hans-Jürgen Busse
- Institute of Microbiology, Veterinary University, Vienna, A-1160 Wien, Austria
| | - Caroline Öhrman
- Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), CBRN Defence and Security, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Andreas Sjödin
- Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), CBRN Defence and Security, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Esteban Soto
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, 95616, USA
| | - Randolph H Richards
- Institute of Aquaculture, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Alexandra Adams
- Institute of Aquaculture, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, FK9 4LA, UK
| | - Duncan J Colquhoun
- Fish Health Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Oslo, Pb 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
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