Occurrence of deformed wing virus variants in the stingless bee Melipona subnitida and honey bee Apis mellifera populations in Brazil

A semi-automated and high-throughput approach for the detection of honey bee viruses in bee samples

Deformed wing virus (DWV) was first detected in dead honey bees in 1982 but has been in honey bees for at least 300 years. Due to its high prevalence and virulence, they have been linked with the ongoing decline in honey bee populations worldwide. A rapid, simple, semi-automated, high-throughput, and cost-effective method of screening colonies for viruses would benefit bee research and the beekeeping industry. Here we describe a semi-automated approach that combines an RNA-grade liquid homogenizer followed by magnetic bead capture for total virus nucleic acid extraction. We compare it to the more commonly applied nucleic acid column-based purification method and use qPCR plus Oxford Nanopore Technologies sequencing to evaluate the accuracy of analytical results for both methods. Our results showed high reproducibility and accuracy for both approaches. The semi-automated method described here allows for faster screening of viral loads in units of 96 samples at a time. We developed this method to monitor viral loads in honey bee colonies, but it could be easily applied for any PCR or genomic-based screening assays.

The presence of identical deformed wing virus sequence variants in co-occurring Apis species in Northern Thailand may represent a potential epidemiological threat to native honey bees of Southeast Asia

Widespread native honey bee species in South and East Asia (Apis cerana, Apis dorsata and Apis florea) and the imported western honey bee (Apis mellifera) share habitats and potentially also share pathogens. Chief among the threats facing A. mellifera in Europe and North America is deformed wing virus (DWV), including its two principal genotypes: A and B (DWV-A and DWV-B respectively). Though DWV-A has been recorded in Asia's native Apis species, it is not known if DWV-B, or both DWV-A and DWV-B, are currently widespread in Asia and, if so, whether viral transmission is primarily intraspecific or interspecific. This study aims to fill these knowledge gaps by (i) determining the DWV genotype in four co-occurring Apis host species using qPCR and (ii) inferring viral transmission between them using nucleotide sequences of DWV from Apis host species collected at three independent localities in Northern Thailand. We found DWV-A and -B in all four Apis species, the exotic A. mellifera and the native A. cerana, A. dorsata and A. florea. That DWV-A sequences were identical across Apis species at the same locality, with a similar pattern for DWV-B sequences, suggests that DWV's epidemiology is largely driven by ongoing interspecific transmission (spillover) of DWV across co-occurring native and exotic Apis species. Both genotypes of DWV represent a serious threat to Asia's exotic and native honey bee species.

All together now: Geographically coordinated miticide treatment benefits honey bee health

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a pathogenic virus of honey bees transmitted by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor. Annual overwintering colony losses, accounting for ~25% of all colonies, are associated with high levels of Varroa-DWV infestation. Effective miticide treatments are available to control Varroa. However, the absence of coordinated treatment means environmental transmission of mites continues unchecked. We aimed to determine whether rational, coordinated treatment is beneficial, and characterized the DWV population as an indicator of colony health.This study uses coordinated treatment of Varroa in a geographically isolated environment (Isle of Arran, Scotland) over 3 years. The study area contained 50-84 colonies managed by ~20 amateur beekeepers. Sampling and virus analysis to assess strain diversity and viral loads were conducted before and after treatments, and changes in population diversity were quantified by sequence analysis.Over the 3 years analysis of the virus population revealed that the dominant DWV variant shifted from Type A to Type B in all apiaries, regardless of mite levels or proximity to other colonies. During this period the number of managed colonies increased by 47% (57-84 colonies), but despite this, we estimate total mite numbers decreased by 58%. Synthesis and applications. In this study, the beekeepers in Arran significantly improved the number of colonies they managed, without importing any bees onto the island, indicating that an improved focus on management techniques, through the combination of a coordinated miticide programme and an improved understanding of bee diseases, could yield positive results for bee health and sustainability.

Stingless Bee (Apidae: Apinae: Meliponini) Ecology

Stingless bees form perennial colonies of honey-making insects. The >600 species of stingless bees, mainly Neotropical, live throughout tropical latitudes. Foragers influence floral biology, plant reproduction, microbe dispersal, and diverse ecosystem functions. As tropical forest residents since the upper Cretaceous, they have had a long evolutionary history without competition from honey bees. Most stingless bees are smaller than any Apis species and recruit nest mates to resources, while their defense strategies exclude stinging behavior but incorporate biting. Stingless bees have diversified ecologically; excel in nesting site selection and mutualisms with plants, arthropods, and microbes; and display opportunism, including co-opting plant defenses. As their biology becomes better known, applications to human endeavors are imposing selective pressures from exploitation and approaches to conservation that entail colony extraction from wildlands. Although some meliponines can adjust to new conditions, their populations shall require tropical diversity for survival and reproduction.

A Novel Variant of Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) from the Invasive Honeybee Apis florea (Apidae, Hymenoptera) and Its Ectoparasite Euvarroa sinhai (Acarina, Mesostigmata) in Taiwan

The invasion of Apis florea in Taiwan was first recorded in 2017. The deformed wing virus (DWV) has been identified as a common bee virus in apiculture around the world. Ectoparasitic mites are the main DWV vector for horizontal transmission. However, there are few studies about the ectoparasitic mite of Euvarroa sinhai, which has been found in A. florea. In this study, the prevalence of DWV among four hosts, including A. florea, Apis mellifera, E. sinhai, and Varroa destructor, was determined. The results showed that a high DWV-A prevalence rate in A. florea, ranging from 69.2% to 94.4%, was detected. Additionally, the genome of DWV isolates was sequenced and subjected to phylogenetic analysis based on the complete polyprotein sequence. Furthermore, isolates from A. florea and E. sinhai both formed a monophyletic group for the DWV-A lineage, and the sequence identity was 88% between the isolates and DWV-A reference strains. As noted above, two isolates could be the novel DWV strain. It cannot be excluded that novel DWV strains could pose an indirect threat to sympatric species, such as A. mellifera and Apis cerana.

Nationwide genomic surveillance reveals the prevalence and evolution of honeybee viruses in China

BACKGROUND

The economic and environmental value of honeybees has been severely challenged in recent years by the collapse of their colonies worldwide, often caused by outbreaks of infectious diseases. However, our understanding of the diversity, prevalence, and transmission of honeybee viruses is largely obscure due to a lack of large-scale and longitudinal genomic surveillance on a global scale.

RESULTS

We report the meta-transcriptomic sequencing of nearly 2000 samples of the two most important economic and widely maintained honeybee species, as well as an associated ectoparasite mite, collected across China during 2016-2019. We document the natural diversity and evolution of honeybee viruses in China, providing evidence that multiple viruses commonly co-circulate within individual bee colonies. We also expanded the genomic data for 12 important honeybee viruses and revealed novel genetic variants and lineages associated with China. We identified more than 23 novel viruses from the honeybee and mite viromes, with some exhibiting ongoing replication in their respective hosts. Together, these data provide additional support to the idea that mites are an important reservoir and spill-over host for honeybee viruses.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data show that honeybee viruses are more widespread, prevalent, and genetically diverse than previously realized. The information provided is important in mitigating viral infectious diseases in honeybees, in turn helping to maintain sustainable productive agriculture on a global scale. Video Abstract.

Anthropogenic effects on the body size of two neotropical orchid bees

To accommodate an ever-increasing human population, agriculture is rapidly intensifying at the expense of natural habitat, with negative and widely reported effects on biodiversity in general and on wild bee abundance and diversity in particular. Cities are similarly increasing in area, though the impact of urbanisation on wild bees is more equivocal and potentially positive in northern temperate regions. Yet agriculture and urbanisation both lead to the loss and alteration of natural habitat, its fragmentation, a potential reduction in floral availability, and warmer temperatures, factors thought to be drivers of wild bee decline. They have also been shown to be factors to which wild bee populations respond through morphological change. Body size is one such trait that, because of its relation to individual fitness, has received growing attention as a morphological feature that responds to human induced modification in land use. Here, we investigated the change in body size of two sympatric orchid bee species on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico in response to urbanization and agricultural intensification. By measuring 540 male individuals sampled from overall 24 sites, we found that Euglossa dilemma and Euglossa viridissima were on average smaller in urban and agricultural habitats than in natural ones. We discuss the potential role of reduced availability of resources in driving the observed body size shifts. Agricultural and urban land management in tropical regions might benefit wild bees if it encompassed the planting of flowering herbs and trees to enhance their conservation.

Epidemiology of a major honey bee pathogen, deformed wing virus: potential worldwide replacement of genotype A by genotype B

The western honey bee (Apis mellifera) is of major economic and ecological importance, with elevated rates of colony losses in temperate regions over the last two decades thought to be largely caused by the exotic ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor and deformed wing virus (DWV), which the mite transmits. DWV currently exists as two main genotypes: the formerly widespread DWV-A and the more recently described and rapidly expanding DWV-B. It is an excellent system to understand viral evolution and the replacement of one viral variant by another. Here we synthesise published results on the distribution and prevalence of DWV-A and -B over the period 2008-2021 and present novel data for Germany, Italy and the UK to suggest that (i) DWV-B has rapidly expanded worldwide since its first description in 2004 and (ii) that it is potentially replacing DWV-A. Both genotypes are also found in wild bee species. Based on a simple mathematical model, we suggest that interference between viral genotypes when co-infecting the same host is key to understanding their epidemiology. We finally discuss the consequences of genotype replacement for beekeeping and for wild pollinator species.

Occurrence and Phylogenetic Analysis of DWV in Stingless Bee (Apidae sp.) in China: A Case Report

Honey bees play a vital role in providing pollination services for agricultural crops and wild flowering plants. However, the spillover risk of their pathogens to other pollinators or wild insects is becoming a cause for concern. There is some evidence that stingless bees can carry honey bee viruses, but little is known about the presence of honey bee viruses in stingless bees in China. Here, we investigate the occurrence of major honey bee pathogens including bacteria, fungi, and viruses in stingless bees (Apidae: sp.). Our results show that the stingless bees (Apidae: sp.) were mainly infected with DWV-A, but no DWV-B and DWV-C. Phylogenetic analysis on fragments of lp, RdRp, and VP3 of DWV-A indicated that genetic variation in VP3 might an important indicator for host-specific viruses, but it requires further study. Our results indicated that DWV-A is not only the major strain of virus currently circulating in managed bee colonies in China and globally, but in stingless bee species as a whole.

Parallel evolution of Varroa resistance in honey bees: a common mechanism across continents?

The near-globally distributed ecto-parasitic mite of the Apis mellifera honeybee, Varroa destructor, has formed a lethal association with Deformed wing virus, a once rare and benign RNA virus. In concert, the two have killed millions of wild and managed colonies, particularly across the Northern Hemisphere, forcing the need for regular acaricide application to ensure colony survival. However, despite the short association (in evolutionary terms), a small but increasing number of A. mellifera populations across the globe have been surviving many years without any mite control methods. This long-term survival, or Varroa resistance, is consistently associated with the same suite of traits (recapping, brood removal and reduced mite reproduction) irrespective of location. Here we conduct an analysis of data extracted from 60 papers to illustrate how these traits connect together to explain decades of mite resistance data. We have potentially a unified understanding of natural Varroa resistance that will help the global industry achieve widespread miticide-free beekeeping and indicate how different honeybee populations across four continents have resolved a recent threat using the same suite of behaviours.

Deformed wing virus variant shift from 2010 to 2016 in managed and feral UK honey bee colonies

Deformed wing virus (DWV) has been linked to the global decline of honey bees. DWV exists as three master variants (DWV-A, DWV-B, and DWV-C), each with differing outcomes for the honey bee host. Research in the USA showed a shift from DWV-A to DWV-B between 2010 to 2016 in honey bee colonies. Likewise, in the UK, a small study in 2007 found only DWV-A, whereas in 2016, DWV-B was the most prevalent variant. This suggests a shift from DWV-A to DWV-B might have occurred in the UK between 2007 and 2016. To investigate this further, data from samples collected in 2009/10 (n = 46) were compared to existing data from 2016 (n = 42). These samples also allowed a comparison of DWV variants between Varroa-untreated (feral) and Varroa-treated (managed) colonies. The results revealed that, in the UK, DWV-A was far more prevalent in 2009/10 (87%) than in 2016 (43%). In contrast, DWV-B was less prevalent in 2009/10 (76%) than in 2016 (93%). Regardless if colonies had been treated for Varroa (managed) or not (feral), the same trend from DWV-A to DWV-B occurred. Overall, the results reveal a decrease in DWV-A and an increase in DWV-B in UK colonies.

Ten Years of Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) in Hawaiian Honey Bees (Apis mellifera), the Dominant DWV-A Variant Is Potentially Being Replaced by Variants with a DWV-B Coding Sequence

The combination of Deformed wing virus (DWV) and Varroa destructor is arguably one of the greatest threats currently facing western honey bees, Apis mellifera. Varroa's association with DWV has decreased viral diversity and increased loads of DWV within honey bee populations. Nowhere has this been better studied than in Hawaii, where the arrival of Varroa progressively led to the dominance of the single master variant (DWV-A) on both mite-infested Hawaiian Islands of Oahu and Big Island. Now, exactly 10 years following the original study, we find that the DWV population has changed once again, with variants containing the RdRp coding sequence pertaining to the master variant B beginning to co-dominate alongside variants with the DWV-A RdRp sequence on the mite-infested islands of Oahu and Big Island. In speculation, based on other studies, it appears this could represent a stage in the journey towards the complete dominance of DWV-B, a variant that appears better adapted to be transmitted within honey bee colonies.

Adaptation to vector-based transmission in a honeybee virus

Global pollinator declines as a result of emerging infectious diseases are of major concern. Managed honeybees Apis mellifera are susceptible to numerous parasites and pathogens, many of which appear to be transmissible to sympatric non-Apis taxa. The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is considered to be the most significant threat to honeybees due to its role in vectoring RNA viruses, particularly Deformed wing virus (DWV). Vector transmission of DWV has resulted in the accumulation of high viral loads in honeybees and is often associated with colony death. DWV has two main genotypes, A and B. DWV-A was more prevalent during the initial phase of V. destructor establishment. In recent years, the global prevalence of DWV-B has increased, suggesting that DWV-B is better adapted to vector transmission than DWV-A. We aimed to determine the role vector transmission plays in DWV genotype prevalence at a colony level. We experimentally increased or decreased the number of V. destructor mites in honeybee colonies, and tracked DWV-A and DWV-B loads over a period of 10 months. Our results show that the two DWV genotypes differ in their response to mite numbers. DWV-A accumulation in honeybees was positively correlated with mite numbers yet DWV-A was largely undetected in the absence of the mite. In contrast, colonies had high loads of DWV-B even when mite numbers were low. DWV-B loads persisted in miticide-treated colonies, indicating that this genotype has a competitive advantage over DWV-A irrespective of mite numbers. Our findings suggest that the global increase in DWV-B prevalence is not driven by selective pressure by the vector. Rather, DWV-B is able to persist in colonies at higher viral loads relative to DWV-A in the presence and absence of V. destructor. The interplay between V. destructor and DWV genotypes within honeybee colonies may have broad consequences upon viral diversity in sympatric taxa as a result of spillover.

Possible Spillover of Pathogens between Bee Communities Foraging on the Same Floral Resource

Simple Summary

Floral resource availability is one of the keys to preserving the health of bee communities. However, flowers also present a risk of pathogen transmission, as infected pollinators could deposit pathogens while foraging, exposing other pollinators to infection via the consumption of contaminated nectar or pollen. Here, we studied, over time, the prevalence of seven viruses in bee communities that share the same small surface of floral resource in order to assess the risk of virus spillover. In total, 2057 bee specimens from 30 species were caught, identified and checked for the presence of viruses. Specimens from the Halictidae family were the dominant wild bees. The prevalence of viruses was quite high: at least one virus was detected in 78% of the samples, and co-infections were frequent. The genetic diversity of the viruses was also investigated to look for the possible association of geographic origin or host with shared ancestry.

Abstract

Viruses are known to contribute to bee population decline. Possible spillover is suspected from the co-occurrence of viruses in wild bees and honey bees. In order to study the risk of virus transmission between wild and managed bee species sharing the same floral resource, we tried to maximize the possible cross-infections using Phacelia tanacetifolia, which is highly attractive to honey bees and a broad range of wild bee species. Virus prevalence was compared over two years in Southern France. A total of 1137 wild bees from 29 wild bee species (based on COI barcoding) and 920 honey bees (Apis mellifera) were checked for the seven most common honey bee RNA viruses. Halictid bees were the most abundant. Co-infections were frequent, and Sacbrood virus (SBV), Black queen cell virus (BQCV), Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) were widespread in the hymenopteran pollinator community. Conversely, Deformed wing virus (DWV) was detected at low levels in wild bees, whereas it was highly prevalent in honey bees (78.3% of the samples). Both wild bee and honey bee virus isolates were sequenced to look for possible host-specificity or geographical structuring. ABPV phylogeny suggested a specific cluster for Eucera bees, while isolates of DWV from bumble bees (Bombus spp.) clustered together with honey bee isolates, suggesting a possible spillover.

Deformed wing virus: using reverse genetics to tackle unanswered questions about the most important viral pathogen of honey bees

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is the most important viral pathogen of honey bees. It usually causes asymptomatic infections but, when vectored by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, it is responsible for the majority of overwintering colony losses globally. Although DWV was discovered four decades ago, research has been hampered by the absence of an in vitro cell culture system or the ability to culture pure stocks of the virus. The recent developments of reverse genetic systems for DWV go some way to addressing these limitations. They will allow the investigation of specific questions about strain variation, host tropism and pathogenesis to be answered, and are already being exploited to study tissue tropism and replication in Varroa and non-Apis pollinators. Three areas neatly illustrate the advances possible with reverse genetic approaches: (i) strain variation and recombination, in which reverse genetics has highlighted similarities rather than differences between virus strains; (ii) analysis of replication kinetics in both honey bees and Varroa, in studies that likely explain the near clonality of virus populations often reported; and (iii) pathogen spillover to non-Apis pollinators, using genetically tagged viruses to accurately monitor replication and infection.

Deformed wing virus prevalence and load in honeybees in South Africa

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is an emerging honeybee pathogen that has appeared across the globe in the past 40 years. When transmitted by the parasitic varroa mite, it has been associated with the collapse of millions of colonies throughout the Northern Hemisphere. However, despite the presence of the mite in the Southern Hemisphere, infested colonies survive. This study investigated the prevalence of DWV genotypes A, B and C along with their viral loads in South Africa and compared the findings with recent data from Brazil, the UK and the USA. We found that DWV-B was the most prevalent genotype throughout South Africa, although the total DWV viral load was significantly lower (2.8E+07) than found in the Northern Hemisphere (2.8E+07 vs. 2.7E+10, p > 0.00001) and not significantly different to that found in Brazil (5E+06, p = 0.13). The differences in viral load can be explained by the mite resistance in Brazil and South Africa, since mite-infested cells containing high viral loads are removed by the bees, thus lowering the colony's viral burden. This behaviour is much less developed in the vast majority of honeybees in the Northern Hemisphere.

Unraveling Honey Bee-Varroa destructor Interaction: Multiple Factors Involved in Differential Resistance between Two Uruguayan Populations

The ectoparasite Varroa destructor is the greatest biotic threat of honey bees Apis mellifera in vast regions of the world. Recently, the study of natural mite-resistant populations has gained much interest to understand the action of natural selection on the mechanisms that limit the mite population. In this study, the components of the A. mellifera–V. destructor relationship were thoroughly examined and compared in resistant and susceptible honey bee populations from two regions of Uruguay. Mite-resistant honey bees have greater behavioral resistance (hygienic and grooming behaviors) than susceptible honey bees. At the end of the summer, resistant honey bees had fewer mites and a lower deformed wing virus (DWV) viral load than susceptible honey bees. DWV variant A was the only detected variant in honey bees and mites. Molecular analysis by Short Tandem Repeat showed that resistant honey bees were Africanized (A. m. scutellata hybrids), whereas susceptible honey bees were closer to European subspecies. Furthermore, significant genetic differentiation was also found between the mite populations. The obtained results show that the natural resistance of honey bees to V. destructor in Uruguay depends on several factors and that the genetic variants of both organisms can play a relevant role.

Bee Viruses: Routes of Infection in Hymenoptera

Numerous studies have recently reported on the discovery of bee viruses in different arthropod species and their possible transmission routes, vastly increasing our understanding of these viruses and their distribution. Here, we review the current literature on the recent advances in understanding the transmission of viruses, both on the presence of bee viruses in Apis and non-Apis bee species and on the discovery of previously unknown bee viruses. The natural transmission of bee viruses will be discussed among different bee species and other insects. Finally, the research potential of in vivo (host organisms) and in vitro (cell lines) serial passages of bee viruses is discussed, from the perspective of the host-virus landscape changes and potential transmission routes for emerging bee virus infections.

The detection of honey bee (Apis mellifera)-associated viruses in ants

Interspecies virus transmission involving economically important pollinators, including honey bees (Apis mellifera), has recently sparked research interests regarding pollinator health. Given that ants are common pests within apiaries in the southern U.S., the goals of this study were to (1) survey ants found within or near managed honey bee colonies, (2) document what interactions are occurring between ant pests and managed honey bees, and 3) determine if any of six commonly occurring honey bee-associated viruses were present in ants collected from within or far from apiaries. Ants belonging to 14 genera were observed interacting with managed honey bee colonies in multiple ways, most commonly by robbing sugar resources from within hives. We detected at least one virus in 89% of the ant samples collected from apiary sites (n = 57) and in 15% of ant samples collected at non-apiary sites (n = 20). We found that none of these ant samples tested positive for the replication of Deformed wing virus, Black queen cell virus, or Israeli acute paralysis virus, however. Future studies looking at possible virus transmission between ants and bees could determine whether ants can be considered mechanical vectors of honey bee-associated viruses, making them a potential threat to pollinator health.

Deformed Wing Virus in Honeybees and Other Insects

Deformed wing virus (DWV) has become the most well-known, widespread, and intensively studied insect pathogen in the world. Although DWV was previously present in honeybee populations, the arrival and global spread of a new vector, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, has dramatically altered DWV epidemiology. DWV is now the most prevalent virus in honeybees, with a minimum average of 55% of colonies/apiaries infected across 32 countries. Additionally, DWV has been detected in 65 arthropod species spanning eight insect orders and three orders of Arachnida. Here, we describe the significant progress that has been made in elucidating the capsid structure of the virus, understanding its ever-expanding host range, and tracking the constantly evolving DWV genome and formation of recombinants. The construction of molecular clones, working with DWV in cell lines, and the development of immunohistochemistry methods will all help the community to move forward. Identifying the tissues in which DWV variants are replicating and understanding the impact of DWV in non-honeybee hosts are major new goals.

The virome of an endangered stingless bee suffering from annual mortality in southern Brazil

Meliponiculture - the management of stingless bee colonies - is an expanding activity in Brazil with economic, social and environmental potential. However, unlike in apiculture, the pathogens that impact on meliponiculture remain largely unknown. In southern Brazil, every year at the end of the summer, managed colonies of the stingless bee Melipona quadrifasciata manifest a syndrome that eventually leads to collapse. Here we characterize the M. quadrifasciata virome using high-throughput sequencing, with the aim of identifying potentially pathogenic viruses, and test whether they are related to the syndrome outbreaks. Two paired viromes are explored, one from healthy bees and another from unhealthy ones. Each virome is built from metagenomes assembled from sequencing reads derived either from RNA or DNA. A total of 40 621 reads map to viral contigs of the unhealthy bees' metagenomes, whereas only 11 reads map to contigs identified as viruses of healthy bees. The viruses showing the largest copy numbers in the virome of unhealthy bees belong to the family Dicistroviridae - common pathogenic honeybee viruses - as well as Parvoviridae and Circoviridae, which have never been reported as being pathogenic in insects. Our analyses indicate that they represent seven novel viruses associated with stingless bees. PCR-based detection of these viruses in individual bees (healthy or unhealthy) from three different localities revealed a statistically significant association between viral infection and symptom manifestation in one meliponary. We conclude that although viral infections may contribute to colony collapses in the annual syndrome in some meliponaries, viruses spread opportunistically during the outbreak, perhaps due to colony weakness.

RNAseq Analysis Reveals Virus Diversity within Hawaiian Apiary Insect Communities

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is the most abundant viral pathogen of honey bees and has been associated with large-scale colony losses. DWV and other bee-associated RNA viruses are generalists capable of infecting diverse hosts. Here, we used RNAseq analysis to test the hypothesis that due to the frequency of interactions, a range of apiary pest species would become infected with DWV and/or other honey bee-associated viruses. We confirmed that DWV-A was the most prevalent virus in the apiary, with genetically similar sequences circulating in the apiary pests, suggesting frequent inter-species transmission. In addition, different proportions of the three DWV master variants as indicated by BLAST analysis and genome coverage plots revealed interesting DWV-species groupings. We also observed that new genomic recombinants were formed by the DWV master variants, which are likely adapted to replicate in different host species. Species groupings also applied when considering other viruses, many of which were widespread in the apiaries. In social wasps, samples were grouped further by site, which potentially also influenced viral load. Thus, the apiary invertebrate community has the potential to act as reservoirs of honey bee-associated viruses, highlighting the importance of considering the wider community in the apiary when considering honey bee health.