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Cheng Z, Lv X, Duan C, Zhu H, Wang J, Xu Z, Yin H, Zhou X, Li M, Hao Z, Li F, Li X, Weng J. Pathogenicity Variation in Two Genomes of Cercospora Species Causing Gray Leaf Spot in Maize. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2023; 36:14-25. [PMID: 36251001 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-06-22-0138-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The gray leaf spots caused by Cercospora spp. severely affect the yield and quality of maize. However, the evolutionary relation and pathogenicity variation between species of the Cercospora genus is largely unknown. In this study, we constructed high-quality reference genomes by nanopore sequencing two Cercospora species, namely, C. zeae-maydis and C. zeina, with differing pathogenicity, collected from northeast (Liaoning [LN]) and southeast (Yunnan [YN]) China, respectively. The genome size of C. zeae-maydis-LN is 45.08 Mb, containing 10,839 annotated genes, whereas that of Cercospora zeina-YN is 42.18 Mb, containing 10,867 annotated genes, of which approximately 86.58% are common in the two species. The difference in their genome size is largely attributed to increased long terminal repeat retrotransposons of 3.8 Mb in total length in C. zeae-maydis-LN. There are 41 and 30 carbohydrate-binding gene subfamilies identified in C. zeae-maydis-LN and C. zeina-YN, respectively. A higher number of carbohydrate-binding families found in C. zeae-maydis-LN, and its unique CBM4, CBM37, and CBM66, in particular, may contribute to variation in pathogenicity between the two species, as the carbohydrate-binding genes are known to encode cell wall-degrading enzymes. Moreover, there are 114 and 107 effectors predicted, with 47 and 46 having unique potential pathogenicity in C. zeae-maydis-LN and C. zeina-YN, respectively. Of eight effectors randomly selected for pathogenic testing, five were found to inhibit cell apoptosis induced by Bcl-2-associated X. Taken together, our results provide genomic insights into variation in pathogenicity between C. zeae-maydis and C. zeina. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixiang Cheng
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Xiangling Lv
- College of Agronomy, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110161, China
| | - Canxing Duan
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Hanyong Zhu
- Wenshan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wenshan, Yunnan, 663000, China
| | - Jianjun Wang
- Corn Research Institute, Shanxi Agricultural University, Xinzhou, Shanxi, 030600, China
| | - Zhennan Xu
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Huifei Yin
- College of Agronomy, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110161, China
| | - Xiaohang Zhou
- College of Agronomy, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110161, China
| | - Mingshun Li
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhuafang Hao
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Fenghai Li
- College of Agronomy, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110161, China
| | - Xinhai Li
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jianfeng Weng
- Institute of Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
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2
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Khiralla A, Mohammed AO, Yagi S. Fungal perylenequinones. Mycol Prog 2022; 21:38. [PMID: 35401071 PMCID: PMC8977438 DOI: 10.1007/s11557-022-01790-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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3
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Chen Y, Xu C, Yang H, Liu Z, Zhang Z, Yan R, Zhu D. L-Arginine enhanced perylenequinone production in the endophytic fungus Shiraia sp. Slf14(w) via NO signaling pathway. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:2619-2636. [PMID: 35291023 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-11877-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Perylenequinones (PQ) are natural polyketides used as anti-microbial, -cancers, and -viral photodynamic therapy agents. Herein, the effects of L-arginine (Arg) on PQ biosynthesis of Shiraia sp. Slf14(w) and the underlying molecular mechanism were investigated. The total content of PQ reached 817.64 ± 72.53 mg/L under optimal conditions of Arg addition, indicating a 30.52-fold improvement over controls. Comparative transcriptome analysis demonstrated that Arg supplement promoted PQ precursors biosynthesis of Slf14(w) by upregulating the expression of critical genes associated with the glycolysis pathway, and acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA synthesis. By downregulating the expression of genes related to the glyoxylate cycle pathway and succinate dehydrogenase, more acetyl-CoA flow into the formation of PQ. Arg supplement upregulated the putative biosynthetic gene clusters for PQ and activated the transporter proteins (MFS and ABC) for exudation of PQ. Further studies showed that Arg increased the gene transcription levels of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and nitrate reductase (NR), and activated NOS and NR, thus promoting the formation of nitric oxide (NO). A supplement of NO donor sodium nitroprusside (SNP) also confirmed that NO triggered promoted biosynthesis and efflux of PQ. PQ production stimulated by Arg or/and SNP can be significantly inhibited upon the addition of NO scavenger carboxy-PTIO, NOS inhibitor Nω-nitro-L-arginine, or soluble guanylate cyclase inhibitor NS-2028. These results showed that Arg-derived NO, as a signaling molecule, is involved in the biosynthesis and regulation of PQ in Slf14(W) through the NO-cGMP-PKG signaling pathway. Our results provide a valuable strategy for large-scale PQ production and contribute to further understanding of NO signaling in the fungal metabolite biosynthesis. KEY POINTS: • PQ production of Shiraia sp. Slf14(w) was significantly improved by L-arginine addition. • Arginine-derived NO was firstly reported to be involved in the biosynthesis and regulation of PQ. • The NO-cGMP-PKG signaling pathway was proposed for the first time to participate in PQ biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunni Chen
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering of Jiangxi Province, College of Life Sciences, Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Chenglong Xu
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
| | - Huilin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
| | - Zhenying Liu
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
- Key Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering of Jiangxi Province, College of Life Sciences, Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Zhibin Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
| | - Riming Yan
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China
| | - Du Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Subtropic Plant Resources of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, China.
- Key Laboratory of Bioprocess Engineering of Jiangxi Province, College of Life Sciences, Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China.
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4
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Al Subeh Z, Waldbusser AL, Raja HA, Pearce CJ, Ho KL, Hall MJ, Probert MR, Oberlies NH, Hematian S. Structural Diversity of Perylenequinones Is Driven by Their Redox Behavior. J Org Chem 2022; 87:2697-2710. [PMID: 35077640 PMCID: PMC8898278 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c02639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Hypocrellins and hypomycins are two subclasses of fungal perylenequinones with unique structural, biological, and photochemical properties. With the growing interest in these naturally occurring photosensitizers, more studies were warranted to better understand the structural relationships between these two subclasses of perylenequinones. In this study, the long-postulated biosynthetic precursor (7) of class B fungal perylenequinones was isolated and characterized from a Shiraia-like sp. (strain MSX60519). Furthermore, the electrochemical and chemical redox behaviors of hypocrellins and hypomycins were investigated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These studies served to define the structural relationship within hypocrellins (1-3), which was further supported by X-ray crystallography, and between hypocrellins and hypomycins (4-6). Chemical reductions of hypocrellins under anaerobic conditions identified the origin of hypomycin A (4), hypomycin C (5), and hypomycin E (6), which in turn served to confirm 4 and revise the absolute configurations of 5 and 6. Hypocrellins were shown to undergo reversible reduction and reoxidation under aerobic conditions, while in an anaerobic environment and longer time scale, the fully reduced form can, to some extent, undergo an intramolecular ring closing metathesis. This may impart a means of reductive pathway for self-protection against these phototoxins and explain the chemical diversity observed in the fungal metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeinab
Y. Al Subeh
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Amy L. Waldbusser
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Huzefa A. Raja
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Cedric J. Pearce
- Mycosynthetix,
Inc., Hillsborough, North Carolina 27278, United States
| | - Kin Lok Ho
- Chemistry,
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle
upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United
Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Hall
- Chemistry,
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle
upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United
Kingdom
| | - Michael R. Probert
- Chemistry,
School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle
upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United
Kingdom
| | - Nicholas H. Oberlies
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Shabnam Hematian
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
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5
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Al Subeh ZY, Waldbusser AL, Raja HA, Pearce CJ, Ho KL, Hall MJ, Probert MR, Oberlies NH, Hematian S. Structural Diversity of Perylenequinones Is Driven by Their Redox Behavior. J Org Chem 2022. [PMID: 35077640 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c0263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Hypocrellins and hypomycins are two subclasses of fungal perylenequinones with unique structural, biological, and photochemical properties. With the growing interest in these naturally occurring photosensitizers, more studies were warranted to better understand the structural relationships between these two subclasses of perylenequinones. In this study, the long-postulated biosynthetic precursor (7) of class B fungal perylenequinones was isolated and characterized from a Shiraia-like sp. (strain MSX60519). Furthermore, the electrochemical and chemical redox behaviors of hypocrellins and hypomycins were investigated under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These studies served to define the structural relationship within hypocrellins (1-3), which was further supported by X-ray crystallography, and between hypocrellins and hypomycins (4-6). Chemical reductions of hypocrellins under anaerobic conditions identified the origin of hypomycin A (4), hypomycin C (5), and hypomycin E (6), which in turn served to confirm 4 and revise the absolute configurations of 5 and 6. Hypocrellins were shown to undergo reversible reduction and reoxidation under aerobic conditions, while in an anaerobic environment and longer time scale, the fully reduced form can, to some extent, undergo an intramolecular ring closing metathesis. This may impart a means of reductive pathway for self-protection against these phototoxins and explain the chemical diversity observed in the fungal metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeinab Y Al Subeh
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Amy L Waldbusser
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Huzefa A Raja
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Cedric J Pearce
- Mycosynthetix, Inc., Hillsborough, North Carolina 27278, United States
| | - Kin Lok Ho
- Chemistry, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J Hall
- Chemistry, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Michael R Probert
- Chemistry, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas H Oberlies
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
| | - Shabnam Hematian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, North Carolina 27402, United States
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6
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Huang K, Tang J, Zou Y, Sun X, Lan J, Wang W, Xu P, Wu X, Ma R, Wang Q, Wang Z, Liu J. Whole Genome Sequence of Alternaria alternata, the Causal Agent of Black Spot of Kiwifruit. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:713462. [PMID: 34616379 PMCID: PMC8488381 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.713462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria alternata is a pathogen in a wide range of agriculture crops and causes significant economic losses. A strain of A. alternata (Y784-BC03) was isolated and identified from “Hongyang” kiwifruit and demonstrated to cause black spot infections on fruits. The genome sequence of Y784-BC03 was obtained using Nanopore MinION technology. The assembled genome is composed of 33,869,130bp (32.30Mb) comprising 10 chromosomes and 11,954 genes. A total of 2,180 virulence factors were predicted to be present in the obtained genome sequence. The virulence factors comprised genes encoding secondary metabolites, including non-host-specific toxins, cell wall-degrading enzymes, and major transcriptional regulators. The predicted gene clusters encoding genes for the biosynthesis and export of secondary metabolites in the genome of Y784-BC03 were associated with non-host-specific toxins, including cercosporin, dothistromin, and versicolorin B. Major transcriptional regulators of different mycotoxin biosynthesis pathways were identified, including the transcriptional regulators, polyketide synthase, P450 monooxygenase, and major facilitator superfamily transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Huang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China.,Institute of Microbial Ecology, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Jianming Tang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Yong Zou
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiangcheng Sun
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,West China Biopharm Research Institute, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jianbin Lan
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China.,Institute of Microbial Ecology, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Panpan Xu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China
| | | | - Rui Ma
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhenshuo Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, MOA Key Lab of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- College of Landscape Architecture and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing, China
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7
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Rangel LI, Spanner RE, Ebert MK, Pethybridge SJ, Stukenbrock EH, de Jonge R, Secor GA, Bolton MD. Cercospora beticola: The intoxicating lifestyle of the leaf spot pathogen of sugar beet. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2020; 21:1020-1041. [PMID: 32681599 PMCID: PMC7368123 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Cercospora leaf spot, caused by the fungal pathogen Cercospora beticola, is the most destructive foliar disease of sugar beet worldwide. This review discusses C. beticola genetics, genomics, and biology and summarizes our current understanding of the molecular interactions that occur between C. beticola and its sugar beet host. We highlight the known virulence arsenal of C. beticola as well as its ability to overcome currently used disease management strategies. Finally, we discuss future prospects for the study and management of C. beticola infections in the context of newly employed molecular tools to uncover additional information regarding the biology of this pathogen. TAXONOMY Cercospora beticola Sacc.; Kingdom Fungi, Phylum Ascomycota, Class Dothideomycetes, Order Capnodiales, Family Mycosphaerellaceae, Genus Cercospora. HOST RANGE Well-known pathogen of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris subsp. vulgaris) and most species of the Beta genus. Reported as pathogenic on other members of the Chenopodiaceae (e.g., lamb's quarters, spinach) as well as members of the Acanthaceae (e.g., bear's breeches), Apiaceae (e.g., Apium), Asteraceae (e.g., chrysanthemum, lettuce, safflower), Brassicaceae (e.g., wild mustard), Malvaceae (e.g., Malva), Plumbaginaceae (e.g., Limonium), and Polygonaceae (e.g., broad-leaved dock) families. DISEASE SYMPTOMS Leaves infected with C. beticola exhibit circular lesions that are coloured tan to grey in the centre and are often delimited by tan-brown to reddish-purple rings. As disease progresses, spots can coalesce to form larger necrotic areas, causing severely infected leaves to wither and die. At the centre of these spots are black spore-bearing structures (pseudostromata). Older leaves often show symptoms first and younger leaves become infected as the disease progresses. MANAGEMENT Application of a mixture of fungicides with different modes of action is currently performed although elevated resistance has been documented in most employed fungicide classes. Breeding for high-yielding cultivars with improved host resistance is an ongoing effort and prudent cultural practices, such as crop rotation, weed host management, and cultivation to reduce infested residue levels, are widely used to manage disease. USEFUL WEBSITE: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/11237?genome_assembly_id=352037.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena I. Rangel
- Northern Crop Science LaboratoryU.S. Department of Agriculture ‐ Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Rebecca E. Spanner
- Northern Crop Science LaboratoryU.S. Department of Agriculture ‐ Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | - Malaika K. Ebert
- Northern Crop Science LaboratoryU.S. Department of Agriculture ‐ Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
- Present address:
Department of Plant BiologyMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMIUSA
| | - Sarah J. Pethybridge
- Plant Pathology & Plant‐Microbe Biology SectionSchool of Integrative Plant ScienceCornell AgriTech at The New York State Agricultural Experiment StationCornell UniversityGenevaNYUSA
| | - Eva H. Stukenbrock
- Environmental Genomics GroupMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary BiologyPlönGermany
- Christian‐Albrechts University of KielKielGermany
| | - Ronnie de Jonge
- Department of Plant‐Microbe InteractionsUtrecht UniversityUtrechtNetherlands
| | - Gary A. Secor
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | - Melvin D. Bolton
- Northern Crop Science LaboratoryU.S. Department of Agriculture ‐ Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
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Chen D, Li G, Liu J, Wisniewski M, Droby S, Levin E, Huang S, Liu Y. Multiple transcriptomic analyses and characterization of pathogen-related core effectors and LysM family members reveal their differential roles in fungal growth and pathogenicity in Penicillium expansum. Mol Genet Genomics 2020; 295:1415-1429. [PMID: 32656702 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-020-01710-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Penicillium expansum is a destructive phytopathogen causing postharvest decay on many stored fruits. To develop effective and safe management strategies, it is important to investigate its pathogenicity-related mechanisms. In this study, a bioinformatic pipeline was constructed and 50 core effector genes were identified in P. expansum using multiple RNA-seq data sets and their putative functions were implicated by comparatively homologous analyses using pathogen-host interaction database. To functionally characterize P. expansum LysM domain proteins during infection, null mutants for the 15 uncharacterized putative LysM effectors were constructed and the fungal growth rate on either PDA or Cazpek medium or lesion expansion rate on the infected apple fruits was evaluated. The results showed the growth rate of knockout mutants from PeLysM5, PeLysM12 and PeLysM15 was retarded on PDA medium. No significant difference in growth rate was observed between wild type and all mutants on solid Cazpek medium. Nevertheless, the hypha of wild type displayed deeper yellow on the back of Cazpek medium than those of knockout mutants. On the infecting apples fruits, the knockout mutants from PeLysM5, PeLysM7, PeLysM8, PeLysM9, PeLysM10, PeLysM11, PeLysM14, PeLysM15, PeLysM16, PeLysM18 and PeLysM19 showed enhanced fungal virulence, with faster decaying on infected fruits than those from wild type. By contrast, the knockout mutation at PeLysM12 locus led to reduced lesion expansion rate on the infected apple fruits. In addition, P. expansum-apple interaction RNA-seq experiment was performed using apple fruit tissues infected by the wild type and knockout mutant ΔPeLysM15, respectively. Transcriptome analyses indicated that deletion of PeLysM15 could activate expression of several core effector genes, such as PEX2_055830, PEX2_036960 and PEX2_108150, and a chitin-binding protein, PEX2_064520. These results suggest PeLysM15 may play pivotal roles in fungal growth and development and involve pathogen-host interaction by modulating other effector genes' expression. Our results could provide solid data reference and good candidates for further pathogen-related studies in P. expansum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danyang Chen
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Guangwei Li
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Economic Plant Biotechnology, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Special Plant Industry in Chongqing, College of Forestry and Life Science, Institute of Special Plants, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Yongchuan, 402160, China
| | - Michael Wisniewski
- United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, Kearneysville, WV, USA
| | - Samir Droby
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Elena Levin
- Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel
| | - Shengxiong Huang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
| | - Yongsheng Liu
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, 230009, China.
- School of Horticulture, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China.
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Bio-Resource and Eco-Environment, College of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Hydraulics and Mountain River Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610064, China.
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Transcriptome analysis on fructose as the sole carbon source enhancing perylenequinones production of endophytic fungus Shiraia sp. Slf14. 3 Biotech 2020; 10:190. [PMID: 32269895 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-020-02181-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Perylenequinones (PQ), a class of naturally occurring polypeptides, are widely used as a clinical drug for treating skin diseases and as a photodynamic therapy against cancers and viruses. In this study, the effects of different carbon sources on PQ biosynthesis by Shiraia sp. Slf14 were compared, and the underlying molecular mechanism of fructose as the sole carbon to enhance PQ production was investigated by transcriptome analysis. The results indicated that fructose enhanced PQ yield to 1753.64 mg/L, which was 1.73-fold higher than that obtained with glucose. Comparative transcriptome analysis demonstrated that most of the upregulated genes were related to transport systems, energy and central carbon metabolism in Shiraia sp. Slf14 cultured in fructose. The genes involved in glycolysis and pentose phosphate pathways, and encoding citrate synthase, ATP-citrate lyase, and acetyl-CoA carboxylase were substantially upregulated, resulting in increased overall acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA production. However, genes involved in gluconeogenesis, glyoxylate cycle pathway, and fatty acid synthesis were significantly downregulated, resulting in higher acetyl-CoA influx for PQ formation. In particular, the putative PQ biosynthetic cluster was upregulated in Shiraia sp. Slf14 cultured in fructose, leading to a significant increase in PQ production. The results of real-time qRT-PCR and related enzyme activities were also consistent with those of transcriptome analysis. These findings provide a remarkable insight into the underlying mechanism of PQ biosynthesis and pave the way for improvements in PQ production by Shiraia sp. Slf14.
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10
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Ebert MK, Spanner RE, de Jonge R, Smith DJ, Holthusen J, Secor GA, Thomma BPHJ, Bolton MD. Gene cluster conservation identifies melanin and perylenequinone biosynthesis pathways in multiple plant pathogenic fungi. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:913-927. [PMID: 30421572 PMCID: PMC7379194 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Perylenequinones are a family of structurally related polyketide fungal toxins with nearly universal toxicity. These photosensitizing compounds absorb light energy which enables them to generate reactive oxygen species that damage host cells. This potent mechanism serves as an effective weapon for plant pathogens in disease or niche establishment. The sugar beet pathogen Cercospora beticola secretes the perylenequinone cercosporin during infection. We have shown recently that the cercosporin toxin biosynthesis (CTB) gene cluster is present in several other phytopathogenic fungi, prompting the search for biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) of structurally similar perylenequinones in other fungi. Here, we report the identification of the elsinochrome and phleichrome BGCs of Elsinoë fawcettii and Cladosporium phlei, respectively, based on gene cluster conservation with the CTB and hypocrellin BGCs. Furthermore, we show that previously reported BGCs for elsinochrome and phleichrome are involved in melanin production. Phylogenetic analysis of the corresponding melanin polyketide synthases (PKSs) and alignment of melanin BGCs revealed high conservation between the established and newly identified C. beticola, E. fawcettii and C. phlei melanin BGCs. Mutagenesis of the identified perylenequinone and melanin PKSs in C. beticola and E. fawcettii coupled with mass spectrometric metabolite analyses confirmed their roles in toxin and melanin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malaika K. Ebert
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA,Laboratory of PhytopathologyWageningen UniversityWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Rebecca E. Spanner
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | - Ronnie de Jonge
- Plant‐Microbe Interactions, Department of BiologyScience4Life, Utrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands,Department of Plant Biotechnology and BioinformaticsGhent UniversityGhentBelgium,VIB Center for Plant Systems BiologyGhentBelgium
| | - David J. Smith
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Jason Holthusen
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA
| | - Gary A. Secor
- Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
| | | | - Melvin D. Bolton
- Red River Valley Agricultural Research CenterUSDA Agricultural Research ServiceFargoNDUSA,Department of Plant PathologyNorth Dakota State UniversityFargoNDUSA
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11
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Petrasch S, Silva CJ, Mesquida-Pesci SD, Gallegos K, van den Abeele C, Papin V, Fernandez-Acero FJ, Knapp SJ, Blanco-Ulate B. Infection Strategies Deployed by Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium acuminatum, and Rhizopus stolonifer as a Function of Tomato Fruit Ripening Stage. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:223. [PMID: 30881367 PMCID: PMC6405687 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, 20-25% of all harvested fruit and vegetables are lost annually in the field and throughout the postharvest supply chain due to rotting by fungal pathogens. Most postharvest pathogens exhibit necrotrophic or saprotrophic lifestyles, resulting in decomposition of the host tissues and loss of marketable commodities. Necrotrophic fungi can readily infect ripe fruit leading to the rapid establishment of disease symptoms. However, these pathogens generally fail to infect unripe fruit or remain quiescent until host conditions stimulate a successful infection. Previous research on infections of fruit has mainly been focused on the host's genetic and physicochemical factors that inhibit or promote disease. Here, we investigated if fruit pathogens can modify their own infection strategies in response to the ripening stage of the host. To test this hypothesis, we profiled global gene expression of three fungal pathogens that display necrotrophic behavior-Botrytis cinerea, Fusarium acuminatum, and Rhizopus stolonifer-during interactions with unripe and ripe tomato fruit. We assembled and functionally annotated the transcriptomes of F. acuminatum and R. stolonifer as no genomic resources were available. Then, we conducted differential gene expression analysis to compare each pathogen during inoculations versus in vitro conditions. Through characterizing patterns of overrepresented pathogenicity and virulence functions (e.g., phytotoxin production, cell wall degradation, and proteolysis) among the differentially expressed genes, we were able to determine shared strategies among the three fungi during infections of compatible (ripe) and incompatible (unripe) fruit tissues. Though each pathogen's strategy differed in the details, interactions with unripe fruit were commonly characterized by an emphasis on the degradation of cell wall components, particularly pectin, while colonization of ripe fruit featured more heavily redox processes, proteolysis, metabolism of simple sugars, and chitin biosynthesis. Furthermore, we determined that the three fungi were unable to infect fruit from the non-ripening (nor) tomato mutant, confirming that to cause disease, these pathogens require the host tissues to undergo specific ripening processes. By enabling a better understanding of fungal necrotrophic infection strategies, we move closer to generating accurate models of fruit diseases and the development of early detection tools and effective management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Petrasch
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Christian J. Silva
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Saskia D. Mesquida-Pesci
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Karina Gallegos
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Casper van den Abeele
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Laboratory of Plant Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Victor Papin
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure Agronomique de Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - Francisco J. Fernandez-Acero
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
- Microbiology Laboratory, Institute of Viticulture and Agri-Food Research, Marine and Environmental Sciences Faculty, University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Steven J. Knapp
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Barbara Blanco-Ulate
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States
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12
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Hu J, Sarrami F, Li H, Zhang G, Stubbs KA, Lacey E, Stewart SG, Karton A, Piggott AM, Chooi YH. Heterologous biosynthesis of elsinochrome A sheds light on the formation of the photosensitive perylenequinone system. Chem Sci 2019; 10:1457-1465. [PMID: 30809363 PMCID: PMC6354827 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc02870b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Perylenequinones are a class of aromatic polyketides characterised by a highly conjugated pentacyclic core, which confers them with potent light-induced bioactivities and unique photophysical properties. Despite the biosynthetic gene clusters for the perylenequinones elsinochrome A (1), cercosporin (4) and hypocrellin A (6) being recently identified, key biosynthetic aspects remain elusive. Here, we first expressed the intact elc gene cluster encoding 1 from the wheat pathogen Parastagonospora nodorum heterologously in Aspergillus nidulans on a yeast-fungal artificial chromosome (YFAC). This led to the identification of a novel flavin-dependent monooxygenase, ElcH, responsible for oxidative enolate coupling of a perylenequinone intermediate to the hexacyclic dihydrobenzo(ghi)perylenequinone in 1. In the absence of ElcH, the perylenequione intermediate formed a hexacyclic cyclohepta(ghi)perylenequinone system via an intramolecular aldol reaction resulting in 6 and a novel hypocrellin 12 with opposite helicity to 1. Theoretical calculations supported that 6 and 12 resulted from atropisomerisation upon formation of the 7-membered ring. Using a bottom-up pathway reconstruction approach on a tripartite YFAC system developed in this study, we uncovered that both a berberine bridge enzyme-like oxidase ElcE and a laccase-like multicopper oxidase ElcG are involved in the double coupling of two naphthol intermediates to form the perylenequinone core. Gene swapping with the homologs from the biosynthetic pathway of 4 showed that cognate pairing of the two classes of oxidases is required for the formation of the perylenequinone core, suggesting the involvement of protein-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyu Hu
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Farzaneh Sarrami
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Hang Li
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Guozhi Zhang
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Keith A Stubbs
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Ernest Lacey
- Microbial Screening Technologies , Smithfield , NSW 2164 , Australia
- Department of Molecular Sciences , Macquarie University , Sydney , NSW 2109 , Australia
| | - Scott G Stewart
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Amir Karton
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
| | - Andrew M Piggott
- Department of Molecular Sciences , Macquarie University , Sydney , NSW 2109 , Australia
| | - Yit-Heng Chooi
- School of Molecular Sciences , University of Western Australia , Perth , WA 6009 , Australia .
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13
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Fodor J, Kámán-Tóth E, Dankó T, Schwarczinger I, Bozsó Z, Pogány M. Description of the Nicotiana benthamiana-Cercospora nicotianae Pathosystem. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2018; 108:149-155. [PMID: 28853320 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-12-16-0448-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Nicotiana benthamiana is a valuable model organism in plant biology research. This report describes its extended applicability in the field of molecular plant pathology by introducing a nonbiotrophic fungal pathogen Cercospora nicotianae that can be conveniently used under laboratory conditions, consistently induces a necrotic leaf spot disease on Nicotiana benthamiana, and is specialized on solanaceous plants. Our inoculation studies showed that C. nicotianae more effectively colonizes N. benthamiana than its conventional host, N. tabacum. The functions of two critical regulators of host immunity, coronatine-insensitive 1 (COI1) and ethylene-insensitive 2 (EIN2), were studied in N. benthamiana using Tobacco rattle virus-based virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS). Perturbation of jasmonic acid or ethylene signaling by VIGS of either COI1 or EIN2, respectively, resulted in markedly increased Cercospora leaf spot symptoms on N. benthamiana plants. These results suggest that the N. benthamiana-C. nicotianae host-pathogen interaction is a prospective but hitherto unutilized pathosystem for studying gene functions in diseased plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- József Fodor
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
| | - Evelin Kámán-Tóth
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
| | - Tamás Dankó
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
| | - Ildikó Schwarczinger
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
| | - Zoltán Bozsó
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
| | - Miklós Pogány
- Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-1022 Budapest, Herman Ottó út 15
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14
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Swart V, Crampton BG, Ridenour JB, Bluhm BH, Olivier NA, Meyer JJM, Berger DK. Complementation of CTB7 in the Maize Pathogen Cercospora zeina Overcomes the Lack of In Vitro Cercosporin Production. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2017; 30:710-724. [PMID: 28535078 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-03-17-0054-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Gray leaf spot (GLS), caused by the sibling species Cercospora zeina or Cercospora zeae-maydis, is cited as one of the most important diseases threatening global maize production. C. zeina fails to produce cercosporin in vitro and, in most cases, causes large coalescing lesions during maize infection, a symptom generally absent from cercosporin-deficient mutants in other Cercospora spp. Here, we describe the C. zeina cercosporin toxin biosynthetic (CTB) gene cluster. The oxidoreductase gene CTB7 contained several insertions and deletions as compared with the C. zeae-maydis ortholog. We set out to determine whether complementing the defective CTB7 gene with the full-length gene from C. zeae-maydis could confer in vitro cercosporin production. C. zeina transformants containing C. zeae-maydis CTB7 were generated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation and were evaluated for in vitro cercosporin production. When grown on nitrogen-limited medium in the light-conditions conducive to cercosporin production in other Cercospora spp.-one transformant accumulated a red pigment that was confirmed to be cercosporin by the KOH assay, thin-layer chromatography, and ultra performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Our results indicated that C. zeina has a defective CTB7, but all other necessary machinery required for synthesizing cercosporin-like molecules and, thus, C. zeina may produce a structural variant of cercosporin during maize infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Velushka Swart
- 1 Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | - Bridget G Crampton
- 1 Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | - John B Ridenour
- 2 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.; and
| | - Burt H Bluhm
- 2 Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR 72701, U.S.A.; and
| | - Nicholas A Olivier
- 1 Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | | | - Dave K Berger
- 1 Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x20, Hatfield 0028, South Africa
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15
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Newman AG, Townsend CA. Molecular Characterization of the Cercosporin Biosynthetic Pathway in the Fungal Plant Pathogen Cercospora nicotianae. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:4219-28. [PMID: 26938470 PMCID: PMC5129747 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b00633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Perylenequinones are a class of photoactivated polyketide mycotoxins produced by fungal plant pathogens that notably produce reactive oxygen species with visible light. The best-studied perylenequinone is cercosporin-a product of the Cercospora species. While the cercosporin biosynthetic gene cluster has been described in the tobacco pathogen Cercospora nicotianae, little is known of the metabolite's biosynthesis. Furthermore, in vitro investigations of the polyketide synthase central to cercosporin biosynthesis identified the naphthopyrone nor-toralactone as its direct product-an observation in conflict with published biosynthetic proposals. Here, we present an alternative biosynthetic pathway to cercosporin based on metabolites characterized from a series of biosynthetic gene knockouts. We show that nor-toralactone is the key polyketide intermediate and the substrate for the unusual didomain protein CTB3. We demonstrate the unique oxidative cleavage activity of the CTB3 monooxygenase domain in vitro. These data advance our understanding of perylenequinone biosynthesis and expand the biochemical repertoire of flavin-dependent monooxygenases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam G. Newman
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Craig A. Townsend
- Department of Chemistry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
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16
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De Novo Transcriptome Assembly in Shiraia bambusicola to Investigate Putative Genes Involved in the Biosynthesis of Hypocrellin A. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:311. [PMID: 26927096 PMCID: PMC4813174 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17030311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 02/22/2016] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Shiraia bambusicola is a species of the monotypic genus Shiraia in the phylum Ascomycota. In China, it is known for its pharmacological properties that are used to treat rheumatic arthritis, sciatica, pertussis, tracheitis and so forth. Its major medicinal active metabolite is hypocrellin A, which exhibits excellent antiviral and antitumor properties. However, the genes involved in the hypocrellin A anabolic pathways were still unknown due to the lack of genomic information for this species. To investigate putative genes that are involved in the biosynthesis of hypocrellin A and determine the pathway, we performed transcriptome sequencing for Shiraia bambusicola S4201-W and the mutant S4201-D1 for the first time. S4201-W has excellent hypocrellin A production, while the mutant S4201-D1 does not. Then, we obtained 38,056,034 and 39,086,896 clean reads from S4201-W and S4201-D1, respectively. In all, 17,923 unigenes were de novo assembled, and the N50 length was 1970 bp. Based on the negative binomial distribution test, 716 unigenes were found to be upregulated, and 188 genes were downregulated in S4201-D1, compared with S4201-W. We have found seven unigenes involved in the biosynthesis of hypocrellin A and proposed a putative hypocrellin A biosynthetic pathway. These data will provide a valuable resource and theoretical basis for future molecular studies of hypocrellin A, help identify the genes involved in the biosynthesis of hypocrellin A and help facilitate functional studies for enhancing hypocrellin A production.
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17
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Characterization of Cercospora nicotianae Hypothetical Proteins in Cercosporin Resistance. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140676. [PMID: 26474162 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The photoactivated toxin, cercosporin, produced by Cercospora species, plays an important role in pathogenesis of this fungus to host plants. Cercosporin has almost universal toxicity to cells due to its production of reactive oxygen species including singlet oxygen. For that reason, Cercospora species, which are highly resistant to their own toxin, are good candidates to identify genes for resistance to cercosporin and to the reactive oxygen species it produces. In previous research, the zinc cluster transcription factor CRG1 (cercosporin resistance gene 1) was found to be crucial for Cercospora species' resistance against cercosporin, and subtractive hybridization analysis identified 185 genes differentially expressed between Cercospora nicotianae wild type (wt) and a crg1 mutant. The focus of this work was to identify and characterize the hypothetical proteins that were identified in the Cercospora nicotianae subtractive library as potential resistance factors. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of the 20 genes encoding hypothetical proteins showed that two, 24cF and 71cR, were induced under conditions of cercosporin toxicity, suggesting a role in resistance. Transformation and expression of 24cF and 71cR in the cercosporin-sensitive fungus, Neurospora crassa, showed that 71cR provided increased resistance to cercosporin toxicity, whereas no significant increase was observed in 24cF transformants. Gene disruption was used to generate C. nicotianae 71cR mutants; these mutants did not differ from wt C. nicotianae in cercosporin resistance or production. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed induction of other resistance genes in the 71cR mutant that may compensate for the loss of 71cR. Analysis of 71cR conserved domains and secondary and tertiary structure identify the protein as having an NTF2-like superfamily DUF1348 domain with unknown function, to be intracellular and localized in the cytosol, and to have similarities to proteins in the steroid delta-isomerase family.
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18
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Membrane transporters in self resistance of Cercospora nicotianae to the photoactivated toxin cercosporin. Curr Genet 2015; 61:601-20. [PMID: 25862648 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The goal of this work is to characterize membrane transporter genes in Cercospora fungi required for autoresistance to the photoactivated, active-oxygen-generating toxin cercosporin they produce for infection of host plants. Previous studies implicated a role for diverse membrane transporters in cercosporin resistance. In this study, transporters identified in a subtractive cDNA library between a Cercospora nicotianae wild type and a cercosporin-sensitive mutant were characterized, including two ABC transporters (CnATR2, CnATR3), an MFS transporter (CnMFS2), a uracil transporter, and a zinc transport protein. Phylogenetic analysis showed that only CnATR3 clustered with transporters previously characterized to be involved in cercosporin resistance. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis of gene expression under conditions of cercosporin toxicity, however, showed that only CnATR2 was upregulated, thus this gene was selected for further characterization. Transformation and expression of CnATR2 in the cercosporin-sensitive fungus Neurospora crassa significantly increased cercosporin resistance. Targeted gene disruption of CnATR2 in the wild type C. nicotianae, however, did not decrease resistance. Expression analysis of other transporters in the cnatr2 mutant under conditions of cercosporin toxicity showed significant upregulation of the cercosporin facilitator protein gene (CFP), encoding an MFS transporter previously characterized as playing an important role in cercosporin autoresistance in Cercospora species. We conclude that cercosporin autoresistance in Cercospora is mediated by multiple genes, and that the fungus compensates for mutations by up-regulation of other resistance genes. CnATR2 may be a useful gene, alone or in addition to other known resistance genes, for engineering Cercospora resistance in crop plants.
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Daub ME, Herrero S, Chung KR. Reactive oxygen species in plant pathogenesis: the role of perylenequinone photosensitizers. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:970-89. [PMID: 23259634 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.5080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play multiple roles in interactions between plants and microbes, both as host defense mechanisms and as mediators of pathogenic and symbiotic associations. One source of ROS in these interactions are photoactivated, ROS-generating perylenequinone pigments produced via polyketide metabolic pathways in plant-associated fungi. These natural products, including cercosporin, elsinochromes, hypocrellins, and calphostin C, are being utilized as medicinal agents, enzyme inhibitors, and in tumor therapy, but in nature, they play a role in the establishment of pathogenic associations between fungi and their plant hosts. RECENT ADVANCES Photoactivated perylenequinones are photosensitizers that use light energy to form singlet oxygen (¹O₂) and free radical oxygen species which damage cellular components based on localization of the perylenequinone molecule. Production of perylenequinones during infection commonly results in lipid peroxidation and membrane damage, leading to leakage of nutrients from cells into the intercellular spaces colonized by the pathogen. Perylenequinones show almost universal toxicity against organisms, including plants, mice, bacteria, and most fungi. The producing fungi are resistant, however, and serve as models for understanding resistance mechanisms. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies of resistance mechanisms by perylenequinone-producing fungi such as Cercospora species are leading to an understanding of cellular resistance to ¹O₂ and oxidative stress. Recent studies show commonalities between resistance mechanisms in these fungi with extensive studies of ¹O₂ and oxidative stress responses in photosynthetic organisms. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Such studies hold promise both for improved medical use and for engineering crop plants for disease resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Daub
- Department of Plant Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.
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20
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Sequencing and annotation of the Ophiostoma ulmi genome. BMC Genomics 2013; 14:162. [PMID: 23496816 PMCID: PMC3618308 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-14-162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The ascomycete fungus Ophiostoma ulmi was responsible for the initial pandemic of the massively destructive Dutch elm disease in Europe and North America in early 1910. Dutch elm disease has ravaged the elm tree population globally and is a major threat to the remaining elm population. O. ulmi is also associated with valuable biomaterials applications. It was recently discovered that proteins from O. ulmi can be used for efficient transformation of amylose in the production of bioplastics. Results We have sequenced the 31.5 Mb genome of O.ulmi using Illumina next generation sequencing. Applying both de novo and comparative genome annotation methods, we predict a total of 8639 gene models. The quality of the predicted genes was validated using a variety of data sources consisting of EST data, mRNA-seq data and orthologs from related fungal species. Sequence-based computational methods were used to identify candidate virulence-related genes. Metabolic pathways were reconstructed and highlight specific enzymes that may play a role in virulence. Conclusions This genome sequence will be a useful resource for further research aimed at understanding the molecular mechanisms of pathogenicity by O. ulmi. It will also facilitate the identification of enzymes necessary for industrial biotransformation applications.
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Stergiopoulos I, Collemare J, Mehrabi R, De Wit PJGM. Phytotoxic secondary metabolites and peptides produced by plant pathogenic Dothideomycete fungi. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 37:67-93. [PMID: 22931103 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2012.00349.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2012] [Revised: 07/01/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Many necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungi belonging to the class of Dothideomycetes produce phytotoxic metabolites and peptides that are usually required for pathogenicity. Phytotoxins that affect a broad range of plant species are known as non-host-specific toxins (non-HSTs), whereas HSTs affect only a particular plant species or more often genotypes of that species. For pathogens producing HSTs, pathogenicity and host specificity are largely defined by the ability to produce the toxin, while plant susceptibility is dependent on the presence of the toxin target. Non-HSTs are not the main determinants of pathogenicity but contribute to virulence of the producing pathogen. Dothideomycetes are remarkable for the production of toxins, particularly HSTs because they are the only fungal species known so far to produce them. The synthesis, regulation, and mechanisms of action of the most important HSTs and non-HSTs will be discussed. Studies on the mode of action of HSTs have highlighted the induction of programed cell death (PCD) as an important mechanism. We discuss HST-induced PCD and the plant hypersensitive response upon recognition of avirulence factors that share common pathways. In this respect, although nucleotide-binding-site-leucine-rich repeat types of resistance proteins mediate resistance against biotrophs, they can also contribute to susceptibility toward necrotrophs.
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22
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Amnuaykanjanasin A, Panchanawaporn S, Chutrakul C, Tanticharoen M. Genes differentially expressed under naphthoquinone-producing conditions in the entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis. Can J Microbiol 2011; 57:680-92. [DOI: 10.1139/w11-043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The ant-pathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis BCC1869 produces six naphthoquinone (NQ) derivatives. These NQs can be found in fungal-infected ants or produced in culture. Also, the NQs have antibacterial, anticancer, and antimalarial activities and are red pigments with potential for use as natural colorants. Suppressive subtractive hybridization identified genes that were expressed under NQ–producing conditions but not under nonproducing conditions. On potato dextrose agar, the mycelia produced red pigments and secreted them into the medium and as droplets on top of the colony. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis indicated that the red pigment was predominantly erythrostominone with small amounts of its derivatives. For suppressive subtractive hybridization, the cDNA from O. unilateralis cultures on complete medium agar cultures (lacking NQs) were subtracted from those on potato dextrose agar (which produce and secrete NQs). Sixty-six unique expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were identified and include five transporter genes, two transcriptional regulator genes, and several genes in secondary metabolism and biodegradation. The transporter genes include an ATP-binding cassette transporter gene OuAtr1 and a major facilitator superfamily transporter gene OuMfs1. Expression of selected ESTs was further validated using quantitative reverse transcription PCR. Gene expression result indicates that OuAtr1 and OuMfs1 were dramatically upregulated (136- and 29-fold increase, respectively) during the NQ–producing stage compared with the NQ–nonproducing stage. Upregulation of other genes was also detected. This EST collection represents the first group of genes identified from this potential biocontrol agent and includes candidate genes for production and secretion of the red NQs. Roles of these genes could be further determined using a functional analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alongkorn Amnuaykanjanasin
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Paholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Sarocha Panchanawaporn
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Paholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Chanikul Chutrakul
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Paholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Morakot Tanticharoen
- National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Science and Technology Development Agency, 113 Paholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
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Chlorimuronethyl Resistance Selectable Marker Unsuited for the Transformation of Rice Blast Fungus (Magnaporthe Grisea). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-18333-1_39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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You BJ, Lee MH, Chung KR. Gene-specific disruption in the filamentous fungus Cercospora nicotianae using a split-marker approach. Arch Microbiol 2009; 191:615-22. [PMID: 19506835 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-009-0489-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2009] [Revised: 04/22/2009] [Accepted: 05/25/2009] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
To determine if DNA configuration, gene locus, and flanking sequences will affect homologous recombination in the phytopathogenic fungus Cercospora nicotianae, we evaluated and compared disruption efficiency targeting four cercosporin toxin biosynthetic genes encoding a polyketide synthase (CTB1), a monooxygenase/O-methyltransferase (CTB3), a NADPH-dependent oxidoreductase (CTB5), and a FAD/FMN-dependent oxidoreductase (CTB7). Transformation of C. nicotianae using a circular plasmid resulted in low disruption frequency. The use of endonucleases or a selectable marker DNA fragment flanked by homologous sequence either at one end or at both ends in the transformation procedures, increased disruption efficiency in some but not all CTB genes. A split-marker approach, using two DNA fragments overlapping within the selectable marker, increased the frequency of targeted gene disruption and homologous integration as high as 50%, depending on the target gene and on the length of homologous DNA sequence flanking the selectable marker. The results indicate that the split-marker approach favorably decreased ectopic integration and thus, greatly facilitated targeted gene disruption in this important fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang-Jau You
- School of Chinese Medicine Resources, College of Pharmacy, China Medical University, 91 Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung 404, Taiwan
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Bluhm BH, Dhillon B, Lindquist EA, Kema GH, Goodwin SB, Dunkle LD. Analyses of expressed sequence tags from the maize foliar pathogen Cercospora zeae-maydis identify novel genes expressed during vegetative, infectious, and reproductive growth. BMC Genomics 2008; 9:523. [PMID: 18983654 PMCID: PMC2596140 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-9-523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The ascomycete fungus Cercospora zeae-maydis is an aggressive foliar pathogen of maize that causes substantial losses annually throughout the Western Hemisphere. Despite its impact on maize production, little is known about the regulation of pathogenesis in C. zeae-maydis at the molecular level. The objectives of this study were to generate a collection of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) from C. zeae-maydis and evaluate their expression during vegetative, infectious, and reproductive growth. Results A total of 27,551 ESTs was obtained from five cDNA libraries constructed from vegetative and sporulating cultures of C. zeae-maydis. The ESTs, grouped into 4088 clusters and 531 singlets, represented 4619 putative unique genes. Of these, 36% encoded proteins similar (E value ≤ 10-05) to characterized or annotated proteins from the NCBI non-redundant database representing diverse molecular functions and biological processes based on Gene Ontology (GO) classification. We identified numerous, previously undescribed genes with potential roles in photoreception, pathogenesis, and the regulation of development as well as Zephyr, a novel, actively transcribed transposable element. Differential expression of selected genes was demonstrated by real-time PCR, supporting their proposed roles in vegetative, infectious, and reproductive growth. Conclusion Novel genes that are potentially involved in regulating growth, development, and pathogenesis were identified in C. zeae-maydis, providing specific targets for characterization by molecular genetics and functional genomics. The EST data establish a foundation for future studies in evolutionary and comparative genomics among species of Cercospora and other groups of plant pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Burton H Bluhm
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA.
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You BJ, Lee MH, Chung KR. Production of cercosporin toxin by the phytopathogenic Cercospora fungi is affected by diverse environmental signals. Can J Microbiol 2008; 54:259-69. [PMID: 18388998 DOI: 10.1139/w08-002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Cercosporin is a polyketide phytotoxin produced by many phytopathogenic Cercospora spp. We investigated environmental signals that have elaborate control of cercosporin production. Light is the most critical factor for cercosporin production. Cercospora nicotianae accumulated substantial quantities of cercosporin only when grown on a particular potato dextrose agar under light but produced little cercosporin on other brands of potato dextrose agar or media with defined ingredients. In addition to light regulation, numerous factors including salts, buffers, and ions markedly affected cercosporin production. By contrast, pH had little effect on cercosporin production. Depletion or alteration of the carbon or nitrogen sources also affected cercosporin production. Production of cercosporin was elevated to varying levels by metal ions, such as cobalt, ferric, manganese, and zinc. Significant differences in cercosporin production were observed among various Cercospora species. Further, regulation of cercosporin production by phosphate buffer, ammonium, LiCl, but not metal ions appeared to occur at transcriptional levels. Expression of the genes involved in cercosporin biosynthesis and regulation decreased markedly and was closely concomitant with the amounts of cercosporin reduced as the fungus was grown on medium containing phosphate, LiCl, ammonium, or dimethyl sulfoxide. The results reveal the complexity of cercosporin production at the physiological and genetic levels. A model delineating regulatory controls of cercosporin biosynthesis is proposed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang-Jau You
- Citrus Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Lake Alfred, FL 33850, USA
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