Mutation of a chloroplast-targeting signal in Alternanthera mosaic virus TGB3 impairs cell-to-cell movement and eliminates long-distance virus movement

ER stress and viral defense: Advances and future perspectives on plant unfolded protein response in pathogenesis

Viral infections pose significant threats to crop productivity and agricultural sustainability. The frequency and severity of these infections are increasing, and pathogens are evolving rapidly under the influence of climate change. This underscores the importance of exploring the fundamental mechanisms by which plants defend themselves against dynamic viral threats. One such mechanism is the unfolded protein response (UPR), which is activated when the protein folding demand exceeds the capacity of the endoplasmic reticulum, particularly under adverse environmental conditions. While the key regulators of the UPR in response to viral infections have been identified, our understanding of how they modulate the UPR to suppress plant viral infections at the molecular and genetic levels is still in its infancy. Recent findings have shown that, in response to plant viral infections, the UPR swiftly reprograms transcriptional changes to support cellular, metabolic, and physiological processes associated with cell viability. However, the underlying mechanisms and functional outcomes of these changes remain largely unexplored. Here, we highlight recent advances in plant UPR research and summarize key findings related to viral infection-induced UPR, focusing on the balance between prosurvival and prodeath strategies. We also discuss the potential of systems-level approaches to uncover the full extent of the functional link between the UPR and plant responses to viral infections.

bZIP60 and Bax inhibitor 1 contribute IRE1-dependent and independent roles to potexvirus infection

IRE1, BI-1, and bZIP60 monitor compatible plant-potexvirus interactions though recognition of the viral TGB3 protein. This study was undertaken to elucidate the roles of three IRE1 isoforms, the bZIP60U and bZIP60S, and BI-1 roles in genetic reprogramming of cells during potexvirus infection. Experiments were performed using Arabidopsis thaliana knockout lines and Plantago asiatica mosaic virus infectious clone tagged with the green fluorescent protein gene (PlAMV-GFP). There were more PlAMV-GFP infection foci in ire1a/b, ire1c, bzip60, and bi-1 knockout than wild-type (WT) plants. Cell-to-cell movement and systemic RNA levels were greater bzip60 and bi-1 than in WT plants. Overall, these data indicate an increased susceptibility to virus infection. Transgenic overexpression of AtIRE1b or StbZIP60 in ire1a/b or bzip60 mutant background reduced virus infection foci, while StbZIP60 expression influences virus movement. Transgenic overexpression of StbZIP60 also confers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress resistance following tunicamycin treatment. We also show bZIP60U and TGB3 interact at the ER. This is the first demonstration of a potato bZIP transcription factor complementing genetic defects in Arabidopsis. Evidence indicates that the three IRE1 isoforms regulate the initial stages of virus replication and gene expression, while bZIP60 and BI-1 contribute separately to virus cell-to-cell and systemic movement.

Turnip mosaic virus impairs perinuclear chloroplast clustering to facilitate viral infection

Chloroplasts play crucial roles in plant defence against viral infection. We now report that chloroplast NADH dehydrogenase-like (NDH) complex M subunit gene (NdhM) was first up-regulated and then down-regulated in turnip mosaic virus (TuMV)-infected N. benthamiana. NbNdhM-silenced plants were more susceptible to TuMV, whereas overexpression of NbNdhM inhibited TuMV accumulation. Overexpression of NbNdhM significantly induced the clustering of chloroplasts around the nuclei and disturbing this clustering facilitated TuMV infection, suggesting that the clustering mediated by NbNdhM is a defence against TuMV. It was then shown that NbNdhM interacted with TuMV VPg, and that the NdhMs of different plant species interacted with the proteins of different viruses, implying that NdhM may be a common target of viruses. In the presence of TuMV VPg, NbNdhM, which is normally localized in the nucleus, chloroplasts, cell periphery and chloroplast stromules, colocalized with VPg at the nucleus and nucleolus, with significantly increased nuclear accumulation, while NbNdhM-mediated chloroplast clustering was significantly impaired. This study therefore indicates that NbNdhM has a defensive role in TuMV infection probably by inducing the perinuclear clustering of chloroplasts, and that the localization of NbNdhM is altered by its interaction with TuMV VPg in a way that promotes virus infection.

Imaging Techniques to Study Plant Virus Replication and Vertical Transmission

Plant viruses are obligate parasites that need to usurp plant cell metabolism in order to infect their hosts. Imaging techniques have been used for quite a long time to study plant virus-host interactions, making it possible to have major advances in the knowledge of plant virus infection cycles. The imaging techniques used to study plant-virus interactions have included light microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy, and scanning and transmission electron microscopies. Here, we review the use of these techniques in plant virology, illustrating recent advances in the area with examples from plant virus replication and virus plant-to-plant vertical transmission processes.

Small hydrophobic viral proteins involved in intercellular movement of diverse plant virus genomes

Most plant viruses code for movement proteins (MPs) targeting plasmodesmata to enable cell-to-cell and systemic spread in infected plants. Small membrane-embedded MPs have been first identified in two viral transport gene modules, triple gene block (TGB) coding for an RNA-binding helicase TGB1 and two small hydrophobic proteins TGB2 and TGB3 and double gene block (DGB) encoding two small polypeptides representing an RNA-binding protein and a membrane protein. These findings indicated that movement gene modules composed of two or more cistrons may encode the nucleic acid-binding protein and at least one membrane-bound movement protein. The same rule was revealed for small DNA-containing plant viruses, namely, viruses belonging to genus Mastrevirus (family Geminiviridae) and the family Nanoviridae. In multi-component transport modules the nucleic acid-binding MP can be viral capsid protein(s), as in RNA-containing viruses of the families Closteroviridae and Potyviridae. However, membrane proteins are always found among MPs of these multicomponent viral transport systems. Moreover, it was found that small membrane MPs encoded by many viruses can be involved in coupling viral replication and cell-to-cell movement. Currently, the studies of evolutionary origin and functioning of small membrane MPs is regarded as an important pre-requisite for understanding of the evolution of the existing plant virus transport systems. This paper represents the first comprehensive review which describes the whole diversity of small membrane MPs and presents the current views on their role in plant virus movement.

Involvement of the chloroplast gene ferredoxin 1 in multiple responses of Nicotiana benthamiana to Potato virus X infection

The chloroplast protein ferredoxin 1 (FD1), with roles in the chloroplast electron transport chain, is known to interact with the coat proteins (CPs) of Tomato mosaic virus and Cucumber mosaic virus. However, our understanding of the roles of FD1 in virus infection remains limited. Here, we report that the Potato virus X (PVX) p25 protein interacts with FD1, whose mRNA and protein levels are reduced by PVX infection or by transient expression of p25. Silencing of FD1 by Tobacco rattle virus-based virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) promoted the local and systemic infection of plants by PVX. Use of a drop-and-see (DANS) assay and callose staining revealed that the permeability of plasmodesmata (PDs) was increased in FD1-silenced plants together with a consistently reduced level of PD callose deposition. After FD1 silencing, quantitative reverse transcription-real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis and LC-MS revealed these plants to have a low accumulation of the phytohormones abscisic acid (ABA) and salicylic acid (SA), which contributed to the decreased callose deposition at PDs. Overexpression of FD1 in transgenic plants manifested resistance to PVX infection, but the contents of ABA and SA, and the PD callose deposition were not increased in transgenic plants. Overexpression of FD1 interfered with the RNA silencing suppressor function of p25. These results demonstrate that interfering with FD1 function causes abnormal plant hormone-mediated antiviral processes and thus enhances PVX infection.

Genetic diversity and SNP's from the chloroplast coding regions of virus-infected cassava

Cassava is a staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa; it is a rich source of carbohydrates and proteins which currently supports livelihoods of more than 800 million people worldwide. However, its continued production is at stake due to vector-transmitted diseases such as Cassava mosaic disease and Cassava brown streak disease. Currently, the management and control of viral diseases in cassava relies mainly on virus-resistant cultivars of cassava. Thus, the discovery of new target genes for plant virus resistance is essential for the development of more cassava varieties by conventional breeding or genetic engineering. The chloroplast is a common target for plant viruses propagation and is also a potential source for discovering new resistant genes for plant breeding. Non-infected and infected cassava leaf samples were obtained from different locations of East Africa in Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique. RNA extraction followed by cDNA library preparation and Illumina sequencing was performed. Assembling and mapping of the reads were carried out and 33 partial chloroplast genomes were obtained. Bayesian phylogenetic analysis from 55 chloroplast protein-coding genes of a dataset with 39 taxa was performed and the single nucleotide polymorphisms for the chloroplast dataset were identified. Phylogenetic analysis revealed considerable genetic diversity present in chloroplast partial genome among cultivated cassava of East Africa. The results obtained may supplement data of previously selected resistant materials and aid breeding programs to find diversity and achieve resistance for new cassava varieties.

Key checkpoints in the movement of plant viruses through the host

Plant viruses cannot exploit any of the membrane fusion-based routes of entry described for animal viruses. In addition, one of the distinctive structures of plant cells, the cell wall, acts as the first barrier against the invasion of pathogens. To overcome the rigidity of the cell wall, plant viruses normally take advantage of the way of life of different biological vectors. Alternatively, the physical damage caused by environmental stresses can facilitate virus entry. Once inside the cell and taking advantage of the characteristic symplastic continuity of plant cells, viruses need to remodel and/or modify the restricted pore size of the plasmodesmata (channels that connect plant cells). In a successful interaction for the virus, it can reach the vascular tissue to systematically invade the plant. The connections between the different cell types in this path are not designed to allow the passage of molecules with the complexity of viruses. During this process, viruses face different cell barriers that must be overcome to reach the distal parts of the plant. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge about how plant RNA viruses enter plant cells, move between them to reach vascular cells and overcome the different physical and cellular barriers that the phloem imposes. Finally, we update the current research on cellular organelles as key regulator checkpoints in the long-distance movement of plant viruses.

Second generation of pepino mosaic virus vectors: improved stability in tomato and a wide range of reporter genes

BACKGROUND

Vectors based on plant viruses are important tools for functional genomics, cellular biology, plant genome engineering and molecular farming. We previously reported on the construction of PepGFP2a, a viral vector based on pepino mosaic virus (PepMV) which expressed GFP efficiently and stably in plants of its experimental host Nicotiana benthamiana, but not in its natural host tomato. We have prepared a new set of PepMV-based vectors with improved stability that are able to express a wide range of reporter genes, useful for both N. benthamiana and tomato.

RESULTS

We first tested PepGFPm1 and PepGFPm2, two variants of PepGFP2a in which we progressively reduced a duplication of nucleotides encoding the N-terminal region of the coat protein. The new vectors had improved GFP expression levels and stability in N. benthamiana but not in tomato plants. Next, we replaced GFP by DsRed or mCherry in the new vectors PepDsRed and PepmCherry, respectively; while PepmCherry behaved similarly to PepGFPm2, PepDsRed expressed the reporter gene efficiently also in tomato plants. We then used PepGFPm2 and PepDsRed to study the PepMV localization in both N. benthamiana and tomato cells. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), we observed characteristic fluorescent bodies in PepMV-infected cells; these bodies had a cytoplasmic localization and appeared in close proximity to the cell nucleus. Already at 3 days post-agroinoculation there were fluorescent bodies in almost every cell of agroinoculated tissues of both hosts, and always one body per cell. When markers for the endoplasmic reticulum or the Golgi apparatus were co-expressed with PepGFPm2 or PepDsRed, a reorganisation of these organelles was observed, with images suggesting that both are intimately related but not the main constituents of the PepMV bodies. Altogether, this set of data suggested that the PepMV bodies are similar to the potato virus X (PVX) "X-bodies", which have been described as the PVX viral replication complexes (VRCs). To complete the set of PepMV-based vectors, we constructed a vector expressing the BAR herbicide resistance gene, useful for massive susceptibility screenings.

CONCLUSIONS

We have significantly expanded the PepMV tool box by producing a set of new vectors with improved stability and efficiency in both N. benthamiana and tomato plants. By using two of these vectors, we have described characteristic cellular bodies induced by PepMV infection; these bodies are likely the PepMV VRCs.

Alternanthera mosaic potexvirus: Several Features, Properties, and Application

Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) is a typical member of the Potexvirus genus in its morphology and genome structure; still it exhibits a number of unique features. They allow this virus to be considered a promising object for biotechnology. Virions and virus-like particles (VLPs) of AltMV are stable in a wide range of conditions, including sera of laboratory animals. AltMV VLPs can assemble at various pH and ionic strengths. Furthermore, AltMV virions and VLPs demonstrate high immunogenicity, enhancing the immune response to the target antigen thus offering the possibility of being used as potential adjuvants. Recently, for the first time for plant viruses, we showed the structural difference between morphologically similar viral and virus-like particles on AltMV virions and VLPs. In this review, we discuss the features of AltMV virions, AltMV VLP assembly, and their structure and properties, as well as the characteristics of AltMV isolates, host plants, infection symptoms, AltMV isolation and purification, genome structure, viral proteins, and AltMV-based vectors.

Chloroplast: the Trojan horse in plant-virus interaction

The chloroplast is one of the most dynamic organelles of a plant cell. It carries out photosynthesis, synthesizes major phytohormones, plays an active part in the defence response and is crucial for interorganelle signalling. Viruses, on the other hand, are extremely strategic in manipulating the internal environment of the host cell. The chloroplast, a prime target for viruses, undergoes enormous structural and functional damage during viral infection. Indeed, large proportions of affected gene products in a virus-infected plant are closely associated with the chloroplast and the process of photosynthesis. Although the chloroplast is deficient in gene silencing machinery, it elicits the effector-triggered immune response against viral pathogens. Virus infection induces the organelle to produce an extensive network of stromules which are involved in both viral propagation and antiviral defence. From studies over the last few decades, the involvement of the chloroplast in the regulation of plant-virus interaction has become increasingly evident. This review presents an exhaustive account of these facts, with their implications for pathogenicity. We have attempted to highlight the intricacies of chloroplast-virus interactions and to explain the existing gaps in our current knowledge, which will enable virologists to utilize chloroplast genome-based antiviral resistance in economically important crops.

The Role of the Chloroplast in the Replication of Positive-Sense Single-Stranded Plant RNA Viruses

Positive-sense single-stranded plant RNA viruses are obligate intracellular parasites that infect many agriculturally important crops. Most known plant RNA viruses are characterized by small genomes encoding a limited number of multifunctional viral proteins. Viral pathogens are considered to be absolutely dependent on their hosts, and viruses must recruit numerous host proteins and other factors for genomic RNA replication. Overall, the replication process depends on virus-plant protein-protein, RNA-protein and protein-lipid interactions. Recent publications provide strong evidence for the important role of chloroplasts in viral RNA synthesis. The chloroplast is considered to be a multifunctional organelle responsible for photosynthesis and for the generation of plant defense signaling molecules. High-throughput technologies (genomics and proteomics), and electron microscopy, including three-dimensional tomography, have revealed that several groups of plant RNA viruses utilize chloroplast membranes to assemble viral replication complexes (VRCs). Moreover, some chloroplast-related proteins reportedly interact with both viral proteins and their genomic RNAs and participate in trafficking these molecules to the chloroplast, where replication occurs. Here, we present the current knowledge on the important role of chloroplasts in the viral replication process.

Non-replicative Integral Membrane Proteins Encoded by Plant Alpha-Like Viruses: Emergence of Diverse Orphan ORFs and Movement Protein Genes

Fast accumulation of sequencing data on plant virus genomes and plant transcriptomes demands periodic re-evaluation of current views on the genome evolution of viruses. Here, we substantiate and further detail our previously mostly speculative model on the origin and evolution of triple gene block (TGB) encoding plant virus movement proteins TGB1, TGB2, and TGB3. Recent experimental data on functional competence of transport gene modules consisting of two proteins related to TGB1 and TGB2, as well as sequence analysis data on similarity of TGB2 and TGB3 encoded by a viral genome and virus-like RNAs identified in a plant transcriptomes, suggest that TGB evolution involved events of gene duplication and gene transfer between viruses. In addition, our analysis identified that plant RNA-seq data assembled into RNA virus-like contigs encode a significant variety of hydrophobic proteins. Functions of these orphan proteins are still obscure; however, some of them are obviously related to hydrophobic virion proteins of recently sequenced invertebrate (mostly insect) viruses, therefore supporting the current view on a common origin for many groups of plant and insect RNA-containing viruses. Moreover, these findings may suggest that the function of at least some orphan hydrophobic proteins is to provide plant viruses with the ability to infect insect hosts. In general, our observations emphasize that comparison of RNA virus sequences in a large variety of land plants and algae isolated geographically and ecologically may lead to experimental confirmation of previously purely speculative schemes of evolution of single genes, gene modules, and whole genomes.

Function and Structural Organization of the Replication Protein of Bamboo mosaic virus

The genus Potexvirus is one of the eight genera belonging to the family Alphaflexiviridae according to the Virus Taxonomy 2015 released by International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (www.ictvonline.org/index.asp). Currently, the genus contains 35 known species including many agricultural important viruses, e.g., Potato virus X (PVX). Members of this genus are characterized by flexuous, filamentous virions of 13 nm in diameter and 470-580 nm in length. A potexvirus has a monopartite positive-strand RNA genome, encoding five open-reading frames (ORFs), with a cap structure at the 5' end and a poly(A) tail at the 3' end. Besides PVX, Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) is another potexvirus that has received intensive attention due to the wealth of knowledge on the molecular biology of the virus. In this review, we discuss the enzymatic activities associated with each of the functional domains of the BaMV replication protein, a 155-kDa polypeptide encoded by ORF1. The unique cap formation mechanism, which may be conserved across the alphavirus superfamily, is particularly addressed. The recently identified interactions between the replication protein and the plant host factors are also described.

Chloroplast in Plant-Virus Interaction

In plants, the chloroplast is the organelle that conducts photosynthesis. It has been known that chloroplast is involved in virus infection of plants for approximate 70 years. Recently, the subject of chloroplast-virus interplay is getting more and more attention. In this article we discuss the different aspects of chloroplast-virus interaction into three sections: the effect of virus infection on the structure and function of chloroplast, the role of chloroplast in virus infection cycle, and the function of chloroplast in host defense against viruses. In particular, we focus on the characterization of chloroplast protein-viral protein interactions that underlie the interplay between chloroplast and virus. It can be summarized that chloroplast is a common target of plant viruses for viral pathogenesis or propagation; and conversely, chloroplast and its components also can play active roles in plant defense against viruses. Chloroplast photosynthesis-related genes/proteins (CPRGs/CPRPs) are suggested to play a central role during the complex chloroplast-virus interaction.

Movement Protein of Cucumber Mosaic Virus Associates with Apoplastic Ascorbate Oxidase

Plant viral movement proteins facilitate virion movement mainly through interaction with a number of factors from the host. We report the association of a cell wall localized ascorbate oxidase (CsAO4) from Cucumis sativus with the movement protein (MP) of Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). This was identified first in a yeast two-hybrid screen and validated by in vivo pull down and bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays. The BiFC assay showed localization of the bimolecular complexes of these proteins around the cell wall periphery as punctate spots. The expression of CsAO4 was induced during the initial infection period (up to 72 h) in CMV infected Nicotiana benthamiana plants. To functionally validate its role in viral spread, we analyzed the virus accumulation in CsAO4 overexpressing Arabidopsis thaliana and transiently silenced N. benthamiana plants (through a Tobacco rattle virus vector). Overexpression had no evident effect on virus accumulation in upper non-inoculated leaves of transgenic lines in comparison to WT plants at 7 days post inoculation (dpi). However, knockdown resulted in reduced CMV accumulation in systemic (non-inoculated) leaves of NbΔAO-pTRV2 silenced plants as compared to TRV inoculated control plants at 5 dpi (up to 1.3 fold difference). In addition, functional validation supported the importance of AO in plant development. These findings suggest that AO and viral MP interaction helps in early viral movement; however, it had no major effect on viral accumulation after 7 dpi. This study suggests that initial induction of expression of AO on virus infection and its association with viral MP helps both towards targeting of the MP to the apoplast and disrupting formation of functional AO dimers for spread of virus to nearby cells, reducing the redox defense of the plant during initial stages of infection.

Chloroplast in Plant-Virus Interaction

In plants, the chloroplast is the organelle that conducts photosynthesis. It has been known that chloroplast is involved in virus infection of plants for approximate 70 years. Recently, the subject of chloroplast-virus interplay is getting more and more attention. In this article we discuss the different aspects of chloroplast-virus interaction into three sections: the effect of virus infection on the structure and function of chloroplast, the role of chloroplast in virus infection cycle, and the function of chloroplast in host defense against viruses. In particular, we focus on the characterization of chloroplast protein-viral protein interactions that underlie the interplay between chloroplast and virus. It can be summarized that chloroplast is a common target of plant viruses for viral pathogenesis or propagation; and conversely, chloroplast and its components also can play active roles in plant defense against viruses. Chloroplast photosynthesis-related genes/proteins (CPRGs/CPRPs) are suggested to play a central role during the complex chloroplast-virus interaction.

Selective Interaction Between Chloroplast β-ATPase and TGB1L88 Retards Severe Symptoms Caused by Alternanthera mosaic virus Infection

The multifunctional triple gene block protein 1 (TGB1) of the Potexvirus Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) has been reported to have silencing suppressor, cell-to-cell movement, and helicase functions. Yeast two hybrid screening using an Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA library with TGB1 as bait, and co-purification with TGB1 inclusion bodies identified several host proteins which interact with AltMV TGB1. Host protein interactions with TGB1 were confirmed by biomolecular fluorescence complementation, which showed positive TGB1 interaction with mitochondrial ATP synthase delta' chain subunit (ATP synthase delta'), light harvesting chlorophyll-protein complex I subunit A4 (LHCA4), chlorophyll a/b binding protein 1 (LHB1B2), chloroplast-localized IscA-like protein (ATCPISCA), and chloroplast β-ATPase. However, chloroplast β-ATPase interacts only with TGB1L88, and not with weak silencing suppressor TGB1P88. This selective interaction indicates that chloroplast β-ATPase is not required for AltMV movement and replication; however, TRV silencing of chloroplast β-ATPase in Nicotiana benthamiana induced severe tissue necrosis when plants were infected by AltMV TGB1L88 but not AltMV TGB1P88, suggesting that β-ATPase selectively responded to TGB1L88 to induce defense responses.

Understanding the intracellular trafficking and intercellular transport of potexviruses in their host plants

The movement of potexviruses through the cytoplasm to plasmodesmata (PD) and through PD to adjacent cells depends on the viral and host cellular proteins. Potexviruses encode three movement proteins [referred to as the triple gene block (TGB1-3)]. TGB1 protein moves cell-to-cell through PD and requires TGB2 and TGB3, which are endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-located proteins. TGB3 protein directs the movement of the ER-derived vesicles induced by TGB2 protein from the perinuclear ER to the cortical ER. TGB2 protein physically interacts with TGB3 protein in a membrane-associated form and also interacts with either coat protein (CP) or TGB1 protein at the ER network. Recent studies indicate that potexvirus movement involves the interaction between TGB proteins and CP with host proteins including membrane rafts. A group of host cellular membrane raft proteins, remorins, can serve as a counteracting membrane platform for viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) docking and can thereby inhibit viral movement. The CP, which is a component of the RNP movement complex, is also critical for viral cell-to-cell movement through the PD. Interactions between TGB1 protein and/or the CP subunit with the 5'-terminus of genomic RNA [viral RNA (vRNA)] form RNP movement complexes and direct the movement of vRNAs through the PD. Recent studies show that tobacco proteins such as NbMPB2C or NbDnaJ-like proteins interact with the stem-loop 1 RNA located at the 5'-terminus of Potato virus X vRNA and regulate intracellular as well as intercellular movement. Although several host proteins that interact with vRNAs or viral proteins and that are crucial for vRNA transport have been screened and characterized, additional host proteins and details of viral movement remain to be characterized. In this review, we describe recent progress in understanding potexvirus movement within and between cells and how such movement is affected by interactions between vRNA/proteins and host proteins.

AltMV TGB1 Nucleolar Localization Requires Homologous Interaction and Correlates with Cell Wall Localization Associated with Cell-to-Cell Movement

The Potexvirus Alternanthera mosaic virus (AltMV) has multifunctional triple gene block (TGB) proteins, among which our studies have focused on the properties of the TGB1 protein. The TGB1 of AltMV has functions including RNA binding, RNA silencing suppression, and cell-to-cell movement, and is known to form homologous interactions. The helicase domains of AltMV TGB1 were separately mutated to identify which regions are involved in homologous TGB1 interactions. The yeast two hybrid system and Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) in planta were utilized to examine homologous interactions of the mutants. Helicase motif I of AltMV TGB1 was found to be critical to maintain homologous interactions. Mutations in the remaining helicase motifs did not inhibit TGB1 homologous interactions. In the absence of homologous interaction of TGB1, subcellular localization of helicase domain I mutants showed distinctively different patterns from that of WT TGB1. These results provide important information to study viral movement and replication of AltMV.

Viral and nonviral elements in potexvirus replication and movement and in antiviral responses

In Potato virus X, a member of the genus Potexvirus, special sequences and structures at the 5' and 3' ends of the nontranslated region function as cis-acting elements for viral replication. These elements greatly affect interactions between viral RNAs and those between viral RNAs and host factors. The potexvirus genome encodes five open-reading frames. Viral replicase, which is required for the synthesis of viral RNA, binds viral RNA elements and host factors to form a viral replication complex at the host cellular membrane. The coat protein (CP) and three viral movement proteins (TGB1, TGB2, and TGB3) have critical roles in mediating cell-to-cell viral movement through plasmodesmata by virion formation or by nonvirion ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex formation with viral movement proteins (TGBs). The RNP complex, like TGB1-CP-viral RNA, is associated with viral replicase and used for immediate reinitiation of viral replication in newly invaded cells. Higher plants have defense mechanisms against potexviruses such as Rx-mediated resistance and RNA silencing. The CP acts as an avirulence effector for plant defense mechanisms, while TGB1 functions as a viral suppressor of RNA silencing, which is the mechanism of innate immune resistance. Here, we describe recent findings concerning the involvement of viral and host factors in potexvirus replication and in antiviral responses to potexvirus infection.

The potato mop-top virus TGB2 protein and viral RNA associate with chloroplasts and viral infection induces inclusions in the plastids

The potato mop-top virus (PMTV) triple gene block 2 (TGB2) movement proteins fused to monomeric red fluorescent protein (mRFP-TGB2) was expressed under the control of the PMTV subgenomic promoter from a PMTV vector. The subcellular localizations and interactions of mRFP-TGB2 were investigated using confocal imaging [confocal laser-scanning microscope, (CLSM)] and biochemical analysis. The results revealed associations with membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mobile granules, small round structures (1-2 μm in diameter), and chloroplasts. Expression of mRFP-TGB2 in epidermal cells enabled cell-to-cell movement of a TGB2 defective PMTV reporter clone, indicating that the mRFP-TGB2 fusion protein was functional and required for cell-to-cell movement. Protein-lipid interaction assays revealed an association between TGB2 and lipids present in chloroplasts, consistent with microscopical observations where the plastid envelope was labeled later in infection. To further investigate the association of PMTV infection with chloroplasts, ultrastructural studies of thin sections of PMTV-infected potato and Nicotiana benthamiana leaves by electron microscopy revealed abnormal chloroplasts with cytoplasmic inclusions and terminal projections. Viral coat protein (CP), genomic RNA and fluorescently-labeled TGB2 were detected in plastid preparations isolated from the infected leaves, and viral RNA was localized to chloroplasts in infected tissues. The results reveal a novel association of TGB2 and vRNA with chloroplasts, and suggest viral replication is associated with chloroplast membranes, and that TGB2 plays a novel role in targeting the virus to chloroplasts.

Lolium latent virus (Alphaflexiviridae) coat proteins: expression and functions in infected plant tissue

The genome of Lolium latent virus (LoLV; genus Lolavirus, family Alphaflexiviridae) is encapsidated by two carboxy-coterminal coat protein (CP) variants (about 28 and 33 kDa), in equimolar proportions. The CP ORF contains two 5'-proximal AUGs encoding Met 1 and Met 49, respectively promoting translation of the 33 and 28 kDa CP variants. The 33 kDa CP N-terminal domain includes a 42 aa sequence encoding a putative chloroplast transit peptide, leading to protein cleavage and alternative derivation of the approximately 28 kDa CP. Mutational analysis of the two in-frame start codons and of the putative proteolytic-cleavage site showed that the N-terminal sequence is crucial for efficient cell-to-cell movement, functional systemic movement, homologous CP interactions and particle formation, but is not required for virus replication. Blocking production of the 28 kDa CP by internal initiation shows no major outcome, whereas additional mutation to prevent proteolytic cleavage at the chloroplast membrane has a dramatic effect on virus infection.