Endoparasite infections in pet and zoo birds in Italy

Survey of parasitic fauna data from wild animals through coproparasitological diagnosis in Southern Brazil

BACKGROUND

The proximity between people and their domestic animals with wild animal populations can result in the spread of diseases with a significant impact on public health. Infection by parasites in wildlife is considered an important bioindicator of the current state of ecosystems, and studying the epidemiology of these infections is essential for a better understanding of natural foci. However, research on parasites in southern Brazil, especially in Rio Grande do Sul (RS), is considered incipient. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to identify the parasitic fauna of wild animals in the southern region of RS through fecal parasitological diagnosis. We processed 82 fecal samples from wild animals - including birds, mammals, and reptiles - from cities within the microregion of Pelotas, using the Zinc Sulfate Centrifugal Flotation, Spontaneous Sedimentation and Oocyst Sporulation techniques.

RESULTS

In 69.5% of the samples (93.1% of mammals, 47% of birds and 50% of reptiles), we found helminth eggs and/or protozoan cysts/oocysts, with strongylid-type eggs being the most frequent parasites (44.11%). Additionally, 64.9% of the positive samples were parasitized by at least one morphogroup with zoonotic agents (Taeniidae, Capillaria, Strongyloides, Spirometra, Lagochilascaris, Sarcocystis, Trichuris, Giardia, Ancilostomid, Physaloptera, Toxocara, Fasciola). We also recorded the first finding of Monocystis spp. in a Southern tamandua (Tamandua tetradactyla).

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, it was observed that the majority of the animals were parasitized and, consequently, susceptible to a wide range of pathogens of medical and veterinary interest, highlighting the importance of these hosts in the spread of parasites, especially those with zoonotic potential. However, the ecology of transmission and the role of these hosts in the life cycles of parasites should be further explored in other studies.

Investigating Endoparasites in Captive Birds of Prey in Italy

Birds of prey can be parasitised by several endoparasites that can coexist without clinical signs of disease or occur in conjunction with stressful events. Because the number of birds of prey kept in captivity is copiously increasing due to their use for bird control, breeding programs, exhibition and falconry, the main endoparasites of 81 apparently healthy captive birds of prey from northern Italy were investigated by examining faecal and blood samples. Faeces were analysed by a quali-quantitative technique, i.e., the FLOTAC® basic technique, employing potassium iodomercurate flotation solution, while blood smears were stained to detect haemoparasites. Risk factors were further assessed. Considering gastrointestinal parasites, an overall prevalence of 41.7% was recorded, and 50% of Accipitriformes, 43% of Falconiformes and 33.3% of Strigiformes tested positive for at least one parasite taxon. Moreover, age and diet were associated with an increased risk of infection. As for haemoparasites, a prevalence of 18.2% was evidenced, and none of the risk factors were associated with prevalence. The results of this study highlighted the importance of monitoring the endoparasites of captive birds of prey with a highly sensitive copromicroscopic technique to target medical treatments, improve housing conditions and conduct epidemiological studies aimed at wildlife conservation and management.

Coproparasitological research in birds housed at the Sargento Prata Zoo, Fortaleza - Ceará, Brazil

Birds kept in captivity are subject to various diseases that affect their well-being, with parasites being among the most common. The aim of this study was to report the occurrence of endoparasites in the feces of birds kept in captivity at Fortaleza Zoo, using the Willis Mollay and Hoffman techniques. Of the samples analyzed, 50.98% were positive for endoparasites, including the suborder Coccidia, the genera Capillaria spp., Strongyloides spp., Ascaridia spp., Libyostrongylus spp., cysts of a specific parasite of Ostriches, Balantidium spp., the Strongyloidea superfamily and cestodes. In conclusion, the wild birds in the zoo investigated had a diversity of endoparasites and a considerable infection rate.

The variety of abomasal nematode communities of captive and free-roaming populations of European bison, Bison bonasus (L.): a morphometric and molecular approach

Most studies concerning parasitic infections in European bison have been performed on free-ranging animals: comparatively little is known about the abomasal nematodes of captive wisents, which are widely used in reintroduction programmes. The aim of the study was to determine the infection level and species composition of abomasal nematodes in captive European bison in enclosures (including zoos) and breeding centres compared to free-ranging individuals. It also includes a morphological analysis of the parasites based on figures and measurement data. Altogether, 11 species of nematodes were detected, with both captive and free-ranging animals demonstrating similar species compositions. Among those, 2 species of blood-sucking nematodes were detected, including Ashworthius sidemi and Haemonchus contortus. Interestingly, A. sidemi was found in almost all free-roaming animals, but only in 1 captive European bison. In addition, H. contortus was predominant in captive animals. The morphological identification was confirmed molecularly for 5 nematode species: A. sidemi, H. contortus, Ostertagia kolchida, O. ostertagi and Spiculopteragia boehmi. The identification was performed using small subunit ribosomal rDNA. The study provides the first available set of specular lengths of the gastric nematodes of European bison, and the first molecular data of O. kolchida and S. boehmi derived from the same host species. Our findings may simplify the morphometrical and molecular identification of Trichostrongylidae species infecting European bison, and can be useful in developing new management strategies for populations of this near-threatened species in Europe.

Investigation of Enteric Parasites with a Focus on Zoonotic Parasites in the Feces of Galliformes

Galliformes have a global distribution and are bred by humans as domestic animals or game birds. The world's poultry population is increasing due to high consumer demand for poultry products. Due to the increasing growth of Galliformes breeding, this study aimed to investigate gastrointestinal parasites in the feces of some species of Galliformes. In the present study, 100 distinct fecal samples were collected from seven different Galliformes species, including rural chickens, peacocks, partridges, pheasants, turkeys, quails, and guinea fowls. Sampling of each bird was performed separately, and these birds were kept in cages. In order to identify gastrointestinal parasites, the samples were evaluated using the Clayton-Lane method, the Modified Ziehl-Neelsen, and the Trichrome staining methods. Among 100 birds sampled, 53% were positive for gastrointestinal parasites. Moreover, 30%, 18%, and 5% of birds were infected with Eimeria spp., nematodes, and Giardia spp., respectively. The highest rate of parasitic infestation in Galliformes was related to protozoan infections, and the highest rate of protozoan infection was related to Eimeria (30%). In addition, complex infestation was not detected. Considering that most parasitic infections have been detected in apparently healthy birds, it is recommended to observe hygiene to regularly disinfect cages and reduce the density of birds in the nests. Due to the zoonotic potential of Giardia and the contamination of some birds with this parasite, this issue should be considered by public health officials, bird sellers' markets, owners, and breeders of these birds.

Wild Animals in Captivity: An Analysis of Parasite Biodiversity and Transmission among Animals at Two Zoological Institutions with Different Typologies

We have conducted a 10-year-long coprological study of the animals housed in two zoological institutions (ZooAquarium and Faunia, Madrid, Spain) to assess the parasite biodiversity, prevalence, and their relation with host class, diet, and enclosure type (soil type and level of isolation from wild fauna). A total of 4476 faecal samples from 132 mammal species and 951 samples from 86 avian species were examined. The results indicated that only 12.8% of avian species had parasites at least once during the study period, whereas 62.1% of mammal species tested positive. Predominantly, protists (Entamoeba, flagellates, and ciliates) and nematodes (mainly Trichuris) were identified in the findings. Carnivorous species were primarily infected by nematodes, while herbivorous and omnivorous species were mainly infected by protists. The number of infected herbivorous and omnivorous species was significantly greater than carnivorous species. Differences were observed based on soil type (artificial, natural, mixed) and isolation level (isolated/accessible), but these differences were not statistically significant. Several parasites (Entamoeba spp., Giardia spp., Balantidoides coli, Trichuris spp.) could potentially be transmitted between humans and some mammals and birds. Regular animal analyses and a personnel health program in the institutions would minimise transmission risks between zoo animals, wildlife, and humans.

A Cross-Sectional Survey of Gastrointestinal Parasites in an Ornithological Garden

Captive birds in collections may be infested with a wide range of parasites. Globally, information on parasitic infections and their health implications in ornithological collections are scarce. In the present study, the prevalence of parasitic infections in an ornithological garden in Tehran was investigated. Samples (n = 109) from various bird species were collected. Direct wet smear, sedimentation, flotation with Sheather's sugar, and modified Ziehl-Neelsen and Giemsa staining were used for parasite screening. Parasites were identified in 57 (52.3%, 95% confidence interval [CI] 42.9-61.7) samples, with protozoans being the most frequently observed organisms, including Cryptosporidium species, Eimeria species, Isospora species, Trichomonas species, and Histomonas species. Helminths were observed in 29 (26.6%, 95% CI 18.3-34.9) of the samples and included strongyles, Capillaria species, and Raillietina species. Ectoparasites were rarely recovered, but 2 species were identified: the poultry shaft louse (Menopon gallinae) and the fowl tick (Argas persicus). Free-ranging birds were significantly (P < 0.001) more likely to have parasites in their feces than caged birds. Fecal parasitic infections were order dependent and more prevalent in the Anseriformes and Galliformes (P < 0.05). The frequency of gastrointestinal parasites was notable in the investigated collection. In open natural bird gardens, such as in the present study, the probable transmission routes and sources of the parasitic infections are most likely via the free-ranging avian species. It is wise to recommend regular screening of the birds in these gardens to improve preventive control measures. Additionally, parasite genotyping should be considered to clarify our understanding of the epidemiology of zoonotic and nonzoonotic parasites.

Prevalence of helminth and protozoan infections in pet birds of Chattogram, Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

Parasitic diseases such as helminths and protozoa are considered one of the major impediments in the rearing of pet birds. The current study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of helminths and protozoal infections in different captive pet birds in Chattogram metropolitan area, Bangladesh.

METHODS

A total of 549 pooled faecal and 311 individual blood samples were collected from different species of pet birds during June 2019 to May 2020. The faecal samples were examined following routine microscopic tests to identify the eggs and oocysts of helminths and protozoan parasites, respectively. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed to determine the haemoprotozoan parasites.

RESULTS

The prevalence of helminth infestations in pet birds was 8.01% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.88-10.61), where infestation caused by nematodes was the highest (7.47%, CI: 5.41-10). Ascaridia and Capillaria spp. infestations were the commonest helminths recorded in different groups of pet birds. The overall prevalence of intestinal protozoal infections was 11.11% (CI: 8.61-14.04) in pet birds. The most commonly occurring protozoal infections were Eimeria spp. (7.83%, CI: 5.73-10.41) followed by Isospora spp. (2.91%, CI: 1.67-4.69). The overall prevalence of haemoprotozoan parasites was 2.25% (CI: 0.91-4.58) in different groups of pet birds. The highest prevalence was recorded in Plasmodium spp. (1.29%, CI: 0.35-3.26) followed by Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The data generated in this study are the first of its type, which would be beneficial to the veterinary practice, aviculturists, pet bird owners and breeders in Bangladesh to respond appropriately for the prevention and control of the disease.

Histopathological Findings in the Cardiovascular System of Psittacidae in Routine Diagnostics

Samples of 363 Psittacidae were included in this study with a focus on cardiovascular diseases. These were identified in 28.9% of the animals, with pericarditis and/or epicarditis and myocarditis representing approximately half of all lesions and bacteria being the most common infectious cause. Cardiac lymphoma was only seen in 5 birds, whereas degenerative vascular lesions were diagnosed in 26.7% of the cases. Histopathology in the context of clinical findings and complementary examination results is the most useful tool for the evaluation of cardiac diseases.

Implementation of Mini-FLOTAC in Routine Diagnosis of Coccidia and Helminth Infections in Domestic and Exotic Birds

Mini-FLOTAC (MF) has recently been proposed for the fecal quantification of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites in birds due to its higher sensitivity and precision in comparison with the McMaster method. The current research aimed to test the use of MF in routine diagnosis of coccidia and helminth infections in several domestic and exotic bird collections in Portugal. Between July 2020 and April 2021, a total of 142 fecal samples from organic layers, peacocks and ratites were collected in four Portuguese bird collections and processed using MF and fecal cultures to identify and calculate GI parasite shedding and prevalence. The McMaster method was also used to compare the shedding levels obtained for both quantitative techniques. MF’s relative sensitivity and specificity were also assessed, using McMaster as the reference technique. The implementation of MF resulted in an average Eimeria spp. shedding higher in peacocks from bird collection 2 (502 OPG), followed by peacocks from collection 1 (107 OPG) and organic layers (24 OPG) and peacocks from collection 3 (9 OPG). Peacocks were also positive for Capillaria spp., Trichostrongylus tenuis and Strongyloides pavonis, whereas ostriches and emus were infected by L. douglassii. The MF protocol for exotic animals and the McMaster method did not differ significantly for each parasitic agent and bird species, and MF achieved relative sensitivities and specificities higher than 70% for Galliform Eimeria spp., peacock helminths and ratites’ L. douglassii infections. Higher L. douglassii EPG values were identified using the MF protocol for exotic species (2 g of feces/38 mL of sucrose solution), followed by McMaster 2/28, MF 5/45 and MF 2/18. The use of MF allowed for obtaining different intestinal parasitic populations in several bird species and locations, and MF 2/38 is globally proposed as the most suitable protocol for bird fecal samples as an alternative to the McMaster method in the diagnosis of avian intestinal parasitic infections.

Insight into One Health Approach: Endoparasite Infections in Captive Wildlife in Bangladesh

Introduction: Endoparasites in captive wildlife might pose a threat to public health; however, very few studies have been conducted on this issue, and much remains to be learned, especially in limited-resource settings. This study aimed to investigate endoparasites of captive wildlife in Bangladesh. Perception and understanding of veterinarians regarding one health and zoonoses were also assessed. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted from October 2019 to August 2020. A total of 45 fecal samples from 18 different species of wild animals (i.e., 11 species of mammals: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, six birds, and a single reptile species) were collected randomly. Parasitological assessments were done by modified formalin ether sedimentation technique and rechecked by Sheather's sugar floatation technique. Molecular identification of Spirometra spp. was conducted by amplifying the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (cox1) gene. Questionnaire surveys among 15 veterinarians and an in-depth interview (IDI) with a zoo officer were conducted. Results: Helminths (Spirometra sp., Capillaria sp., Ascaridia/Heterakis, opisthorchiid, strongyles, acuariid, hookworms, roundworms, and unidentified nematode larvae) and protozoa (coccidian oocyst) were identified, and the overall prevalence was 48.9% (22/45). The cox1 sequences (341 bp) of the Bangladesh-origin Spirometra species from lion showed 99.3-99.7% similarity to the reference sequences of Spirometra decipiens (GenBank No: KJ599679.1; MT122766). The majority of study participants (86.6%) agreed about the importance of endoparasite control in zoo animals, and 73.3% expressed that the one health concept should be promoted in Bangladesh. Only 6.7% of veterinarians perceived confidence in diagnosing parasitic diseases and preventing antiparasiticidal resistance. Conclusions: In the present survey, we found a considerable prevalence of endoparasites in captive wildlife. For the first time, zoonotically important S. decipiens from lion was molecularly characterized in Bangladesh. Veterinarian training is required to improve parasite control knowledge and practice. This study highlights the need for routine parasitological assessment, promotion of one health, and improvement of the implementation of current parasite control strategies in zoo animals.

Epidemiology of Giardia duodenalis assemblages in Brazil: there is still a long way to go

Giardia duodenalis infection is distributed worldwide and can achieve prevalence around 60%, especially in developing countries. This protozoan is divided into eight assemblages, in which A and B have high zoonotic potential, whereas C to H are host-specific. This scenario is changing as molecular studies progress, highlighting that knowledge on host-specificity still has a long way to go. Understanding the players involved in transmission routes enables rational designs of control strategies. Considering the high prevalence of giardiasis, this review aims to gather together the data on available studies on the distribution of G. duodenalis assemblages in Brazil until September 2020.

Gastrointestinal helminths of waterfowl (Anatidae: Anatinae) in the Lerma marshes of central Mexico: Some pathological aspects

Gastrointestinal helminths of migratory waterfowl can cause several lesions that may affect the health and even the survival of their hosts. As part of an ongoing project that aims to inventory the helminth species that infect this group of birds, as well as the histopathologic lesion they cause, a total of 200 digestive tracts of nine species of anatid birds (Spatula discors, S. cyanoptera, S. clypeata, Mareca strepera, M. americana, Anas crecca, A. acuta, A. platyrhynchos diazi, and Oxyura jamaicensis) were collected in the Atarasquillo marsh of Lerma, in the State of Mexico. The present work had a twofold goal: to determine the taxonomic identity of the helminth species present in waterfowl as well as their infection levels and to describe the lesions caused by gastrointestinal parasites in migratory and resident anatids in Atarasquillo marsh, State of Mexico. The specimens were examined using routine helminthological and histopathological techniques. A total of 23 helminths were identified: six trematodes (Zygocotyle lunata, Notocotylus triserialis, Notocotylus seineti, Psilochasmus oxyurus, Australapatemon burti and Cotylurus magniacetabulus), four cestodes (Cloacotaenia megalops, Fimbriaria fasciolaris, Gatrotaenia cygni and Diorchis sp.), eleven nematodes (Echinuria uncinata, Tetrameres sp., Tetrameres fissispina, Hystrichis sp., Streptocara sp., Amidostomum sp., Epomidiostomum uncinatum, Capillaria sp., Capillaria contorta, Ascaridia sp. and Heterakis sp.) and two acanthocephalans (Pseudocorynosoma constrictum and Filicollis sp.). At the proventriculus level, Echinuria uncinata caused the most severe lesions; in the gizzard, Amidostomum sp. and E. uncinatum produced hemorrhages and necrosis. Finally, the main lesions found in the intestine (necrosis, heterophilic granulomas and the formation of lumps on the serosa) were caused by the implantation of the acanthocephalans’ proboscis. Eleven species of gastrointestinal helminths found are new records for the Lerma marshes, as well as the first record in Mexico of the nematode Capillaria contorta and the acanthocephalan Filicollis sp.

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Gastrointestinal helminths in waterfowls are common and diverse.

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Helminths recorded: 6 trematodes, 4 cestodes, 11 nematodes, and 2 acanthocephalans.

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New records of gastrointestinal helminths (11 spp.) for Central of Mexico.

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We present the first record of Capillaria contorta and Filicollis sp. in Mexico.

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The most severe lesions were caused by the implantation of the acanthocephalans' proboscis.

Occurrence and Molecular Typing of Giardia psittaci in Parakeets in Germany-A Case Study

A grey-hooded parakeet (Psilopsiagon aymara) and two budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) from different owners presented with decreased activity, vomitus, and diarrhea. A microscopic examination of feces showed trophozoites of the protozoan flagellate Giardia. A commercial immunochromatographic dipstick test for Giardia sp. antigens confirmed the infection. These findings were assured by PCR of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene and coproantigen ELISA. Sequencing of PCR products of the SSU rRNA (292 bp) and β-giardin genes (511 bp) identified Giardia psittaci as the species involved. Therefore, our results show that a GSA 65-based coproantigen ELISA, which was established for diagnosis of Giardia duodenalis is applicable for the detection of G. psittaci. A treatment with ronidazole was started. Additionally, fecal examination and dissection of the dead birds revealed coinfection with the fungal pathogen Macrorhabdus ornithogaster. One budgerigar survived and repeatedly tested negative after treatment with ronidazole. The described cases indicate that a single infection with G. psittaci has a good prognosis, whereas the prognosis is poor when coinfections occur, especially with M. ornithogaster.

Gastrointestinal parasites of a population of emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) in Brazil

Emus are large flightless birds in the ratite group and are native to Australia. Since the mid-1980s, there has been increased interest in the captive breeding of emus for the production of leather, meat and oil. The aim of this study was to identify gastrointestinal parasites in the feces of emus Dromaius novaehollandiae from a South American scientific breeding. Fecal samples collected from 13 birds were examined by direct smears, both with and without centrifugation, as well as by the fecal flotation technique using Sheather's sugar solution. Trophozoites, cysts and oocysts of protozoa and nematode eggs were morphologically and morphometrically evaluated. Molecular analysis using PCR assays with specific primers for the genera Entamoeba, Giardia and Cryptosporidium were performed. Trophozoites and cysts of Entamoeba spp. and Giardia spp., oocysts of Eimeria spp. and Isospora dromaii, as well as eggs belonging to the Ascaridida order were found in the feces. Three animals were diagnosed with Giardia spp., and three were positive for Entamoeba spp. based on PCR techniques. After analyzing the data, we concluded that emus were infected enzootically by nematode and protozoan species.

Molecular epidemiology of giardiasis from a veterinary perspective

A total of eight Giardia species are accepted. These include: Giardia duodenalis (syn. Giardia intestinalis and Giardia lamblia), which infects humans and animals, Giardia agilis, Giardia ardeae, Giardia psittaci, Giardia muris, Giardia microti, Giardia peramelis and G. cricetidarum, which infect non-human hosts including amphibians, birds, rodents and marsupials. Giardia duodenalis is a species complex consisting of eight assemblages (A-H), with assemblages A and B the dominant assemblages in humans. Molecular studies to date on the zoonotic potential of Giardia in animals are problematic and are hampered by lack of concordance between loci. Livestock (cattle, sheep, goats and pigs) are predominantly infected with G. duodenalis assemblage E, which has recently been shown to be zoonotic, followed by assemblage A. In cats and dogs, assemblages A, B, C, D and F are commonly reported but relatively few studies have conducted molecular typing of humans and their pets and the results are contradictory with some studies support zoonotic transmission but the majority of studies suggesting separate transmission cycles. Giardia also infects a broad range of wildlife hosts and although much less well studied, host-adapted species as well as G. duodenalis assemblages (A-H) have been identified. Fish and other aquatic wildlife represent a source of infection for humans with Giardia via water contamination and/or consumption of undercooked fish and interestingly, assemblage B and A predominated in the two molecular studies conducted to date. Our current knowledge of the transmission dynamics of Giardia is still poor and the development of more discriminatory typing tools such as whole genome sequencing (WGS) of Giardia isolates is therefore essential.

GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES IN CAPTIVE AND FREE-RANGING BIRDS AND POTENTIAL CROSS-TRANSMISSION IN A ZOO ENVIRONMENT

Gastrointestinal parasites are commonly reported in wild birds, but transmission amongst avifauna in zoological settings, and between these captive birds and wild birds in surrounding areas, remains poorly understood. A survey was undertaken to investigate the occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive and free-ranging birds at Bristol Zoo Gardens between May and July 2016. A total of 348 fecal samples from 32 avian species were examined using the Mini-FLOTAC flotation method. Parasites were detected in 31% (45/145) of samples from captive birds and in 65.5% (133/203) of samples from free-ranging birds. Parasites of captive individuals included ascarids ( Heterakis spp. and other morphotypes), capillarids, oxyurids, strongyles, a trematode, and protozoans ( Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., Caryospora sp., and Entamoeba spp.). Parasites of free-ranging birds included ascarids ( Ascaridia spp., Porrocaecum spp., and other morphotypes), capillarids, oxyurids, strongyles ( Syngamus spp. and other morphotypes), cestodes ( Choanotaenia spp., Hymenolepis spp., and other morphotypes), a trematode, and protozoans ( Eimeria spp., Isospora spp., Entamoeba spp.). Similar types of parasites were detected in captive and free-ranging birds, but capillarid ova morphology was similar only between closely related species, eg in corvids (captive azure-winged magpies [ Cyanipica cyana] and wild jackdaws [ Corvus monedula]) and between wild columbids (collared doves [ Streptopelia decaocto], rock doves [ Columba livia], and wood pigeons [ Columba palumbus]). The prevalence and intensity of nematodes and coccidia in birds housed outdoors did not differ statistically from species housed indoors. Results indicate that captive and free-ranging birds may share parasites when closely related, but this would need to be confirmed by the study of adult specimens and molecular tests. Determining which parasites are present in captive and free-ranging species in zoological parks will support the establishment of effective husbandry practices to maintain the health status of managed species.

Redescription of Eimeria megabubonis Upton, Campbell, Weigel & McKown, 1990 (Apicomplexa: Emeriidae) from the great horned owl Bubo virginianus (Gmelin)

While nine nominal species of Eimeria Schneider, 1875 have been described from strigiform birds, molecular sequence data are not available for any of these species. In the present study, oöcysts of a coccidian were isolated by faecal flotation from the lower intestinal contents of an opportunistically collected, recently deceased great horned owl Bubo virginianus (Gmelin), sporulated in potassium dichromate, and subjected to morphological and molecular characterisation. Comparisons of morphological data with previous accounts of Eimeria spp. from owls were consistent with Eimeria megabubonis Upton, Campbell, Weigel & McKown, 1990. Novel molecular data for the 18S ribosomal RNA gene region and the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene are provided. The results of phylogenetic analysis based on concatenated sequence data from these regions are presented and implications for the evolutionary history of Eimeria are discussed.

Toxoplasma gondii and Other Zoonotic Protozoans in Mediterranean Mussel ( Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Blue Mussel ( Mytilus edulis): A Food Safety Concern?

Mediterranean mussels ( Mytilus galloprovincialis) and blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis) are among the most consumed fishery products, but they are frequent vehicles of foodborne infection worldwide. In this study, we investigated the occurrence and seasonality of zoonotic protozoans in mussels farmed or sold at retail outlets in Italy. We collected and tested 1,440 M. galloprovincialis and 180 M. edulis. Pooled samples were molecularly tested for Giardia duodenalis, Cryptosporidium spp., and Toxoplasma gondii and then sequenced. Sixty-two (45.9%; 95% confidence interval, 37.5 to 54.3%) mussel pools tested positive for one or more of the investigated pathogens. Both Mytilus species and samples from all the investigated areas harbored pathogens. Mussels were statistically more contaminated by Cryptosporidium spp., followed by T. gondii and G. duodenalis assemblage A, and M. galloprovincialis was more contaminated than M. edulis ( P < 0.01). Contamination was more likely in mussels at retail outlets ( P < 0.05) than in those from farms and in mussels collected in spring ( P < 0.01) than in other seasons. This is the first report of T. gondii found in M. galloprovincialis in Italy and in M. edulis in Europe. The detection of zoonotic protozoans in a widely consumed food source indicates the need for a more detailed microbiological risk analysis, especially considering that bivalve mollusks are often consumed raw worldwide.

Occurrence of gastrointestinal parasites in wild animals in State of Paraná, Brazil

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and diversity of gastrointestinal parasites in fecal samples from wild birds and mammals from the State of Paraná. In total, 220 stool samples were sent to Parasitic Diseases Laboratory of the Federal University of Paraná during 13 months (Jan/2013-Jan/2014). A total of 52.7% (116/220) of the animals were positive for cysts, oocysts, eggs and/or trophozoites. In birds, the positivity rate was 37.9% (25/66) and mammals was 59.1% (91/154). Strongyloidea superfamily eggs were observed in 37.3% (82/220) of the samples, Eimeria spp. in 10% (22/220), and Trichuris spp. in 4.5% (10/220). The most frequent mammal species were llamas (Lama glama), and dromedaries (Camelus bactrianus) with infection rate of 70.1% (54/77) and 60.8% (14/23), respectively. In other hand, cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and ring necks (Psittacula krameri), were the most researched birds, with infection rate of 20% (40/50) and 100% (6/6), respectively. A high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was observed in most of wildlife animals. Further investigations should be conducted focusing on parasite control strategies and the conservation measurements for harmonizing the human-animal interaction on the long-term, reducing associated health risks.

Molecular identification of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia in Brazilian captive birds

A total of 85 fecal samples from captive birds collected from October 2013 to September 2014 in Uberlândia and Belo Horizonte in the state of Minas Gerais (Brazil) were evaluated for the presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia by PCR. Of these, three birds were found positive for E. bieneusi (3.5%), two for Cryptosporidium (2.3%), and one for Giardia (1.2%). Two genotypes of E. bieneusi were detected by nucleotide sequence analysis of the ITS region, genotypes D and Peru 6 in a swan goose and in two rock pigeons, respectively. For Cryptosporidium and Giardia, nucleotide sequence analysis of the SSU rRNA identified Cryptosporidium baileyi and Duck genotype in a swan goose and a mandarin duck, respectively, and Giardia duodenalis assemblage A in a toco toucon. Our results demonstrate that human-pathogenic E. bieneusi genotypes D and Peru6 and G. duodenalis assemblage A are present in captive birds in Brazil, corroborating their potential role as a source of human infection and environmental contamination.

Occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in wild birds in Galicia (Northwest Spain)

Faecal samples were obtained from 433 wild birds being treated in wildlife recovery centres in Galicia (Northwest Spain), between February 2007 and September 2009. The birds belonged to 64 species representing 17 different orders. Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected by an immunofluorescence antibody test and identified at the molecular level by established PCR-sequencing methods. The overall prevalence of Giardia was 2·1% and that of Cryptosporidium, 8·3%. To our knowledge, this is the first description of Giardia sp. in Tyto alba and Caprimulgus europaeus; and of Cryptosporidium sp. in Apus apus, Athene noctua, C. europaeus, Falco tinnunculus, Morus bassanus, Parabuteo unicinctus and Strix aluco. Furthermore, the first PCR-sequence confirmed detection of Giardia duodenalis assemblage B in, Buteo buteo, Coturnix coturnix and Pica pica; G. duodenalis assemblage D in Garrulus glandarius; and G. duodenalis assemblage F in Anas platyrhynchos; Cryptosporidium parvum in Accipiter nisus, B. buteo, Milvus migrans, Pernis apivorus and P. pica; and Cryptosporidium meleagridis in Streptopelia turtur. The study findings demonstrate the wide spread of Giardia and Cryptosporidium between wild birds.

Isospora dromaii n. sp. (Apicomplexa, Eimeriidae) isolated from emus, Dromaius novaehollandiae (Casuariiformes, Casuariidae)

A new species of Coccidia (Protozoa: Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) isolated from emus, Dromaius novaehollandiae, which was observed in Brazil is described and named. Oocysts of Isospora dromaii n. sp. are subspheroidal to ovoid in shape, measure 21.6 × 19.8 μm, and have a double and smooth wall thickness of approximately 1.4 μm. In this species, micropyle, oocyst residuum, and polar granules are absent. The sporocysts are slightly ovoid in shape and measure 13.7 × 10.0 μm. Nipple-like Stieda body and prominent sub-Stieda body are present. The sporocyst residuum is composed of small dispersed granules of varying sizes. The sporozoites are characterized by an oblong refractile body and one centrally located nucleus. This is the first description of isosporid coccidia infecting birds of the family Dromaiidae.

A simple method to count total faecal Capillaria worm eggs in racing pigeons (Columba livia)

Capillaria columbae and C. longicollis are fine threadworms found in racing pigeons' small intestines that produce a characteristic lemon shaped bipolar egg. Clinically, capillariasis in racing pigeons can present as severe illness and it has been suggested that worms may affect race performance. A major aim of this study was to validate a cheap, simple to perform flotation technique for counting Capillaria worm eggs in racing pigeon droppings. Trials using reference samples of pigeon droppings laced with 348, 275 and 129 Capillaria eggs per gram, found a typical flotation method based on the modified Wisconsin technique to be inaccurate at counting worm eggs. The main sources of error were due to the loss of eggs in the faecal discard and insufficient flotation time. A new technique, using 0.15 g sample size and 8h flotation time resulted in significantly improved test accuracy. On average the new technique recovered 93% of eggs from reference samples with 129-348 epg concentration, recovering 197 times more eggs than the modified Wisconsin technique. Typical percentage error, as a measure of absolute reliablility, was 10% for the new technique and 50% for the modified Wisconsin technique. The regression line on a test-retest series of samples over a range of egg counts from 0 to 573 epg had a gradient of 0.96 (y=0.96x+6.28; r(2)=0.8408) for the new technique and 0.54 (y=0.54x+0.06; r(2)=0.4249) for the modified Wisconsin technique. The Pearson product moment correlations of the new technique and the modified Wisconsin technique were 0.92 and 0.65 respectively. As measures of relative reliability both the gradient of the regression line and the Pearson product moment correlation further suggested better repeatability of the new technique. It was concluded that the new technique would be an appropriate quantitative method of assessing worm egg burdens in racing pigeons.

Zoonoses in pet birds: review and perspectives

Pet birds are a not-so-well known veterinarian’s clientship fraction. Bought individually or in couples, as families often do (which is a lucrative business for pet shops or local breeders) or traded (sometimes illegally) for their very high genetic or exotic value, these birds, commonly canaries, parakeets or parrots, are regularly sold at high prices. These animals, however, are potential carriers and/or transmitters of zoonotic diseases. Some of them could have an important impact on human health, like chlamydophilosis, salmonellosis or even highly pathogenic avian influenza A H5N1. This review paper, although non exhaustive, aims at enlightening, by the description of several cases of bird-human transmission, the risks encountered by bird owners, including children. Public health consequences will be discussed and emphasis will be made on some vector-borne diseases, known to be emergent or which are underestimated, like those transmitted by the red mite Dermanyssus gallinae. Finally, biosecurity and hygiene, as well as prevention guidelines will be developed and perspectives proposed.