A specific subset of SR proteins shuttles continuously between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

TTK promotes mitophagy by regulating ULK1 phosphorylation and pre-mRNA splicing to inhibit mitochondrial apoptosis in bladder cancer

Bladder cancer (BC) remains a major global health challenge, with poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options in advanced stages. TTK protein kinase (TTK), a serine/threonine kinase, has been implicated in the progression of various cancers, but its role in BC has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we show that TTK is significantly upregulated in BC tissues and cell lines, correlating with poor patient prognosis. Functional assays revealed that TTK promotes proliferation and inhibits apoptosis of BC cells. Mechanistically, TTK enhances mitophagy by directly phosphorylating ULK1 at Ser477, thereby activating the ULK1/FUNDC1-mediated mitophagy pathway. TTK knockdown disrupts mitophagy, leading to impaired clearance of damaged mitochondria, excessive accumulation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS), and activation of mitochondrial apoptosis. Furthermore, TTK phosphorylates SRSF3 at Ser108, preventing ULK1 exon 5 skipping and maintaining ULK1 mRNA stability. These findings show that TTK plays a key role in maintaining mitophagy in BC cells. Targeting TTK could offer a promising new approach for BC treatment by disrupting mitophagy and inducing mitochondrial apoptosis.

The splicing factor kinase, SR protein kinase 1 (SRPK1) is essential for late events in the human papillomavirus life cycle

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) infect epithelia to cause benign lesions or warts. However, the so-called "high risk" HPVs infecting the anogenital region and the oropharynx can cause precancerous lesions that may progress to malignant tumours. Understanding the HPV life cycle is important to the discovery of novel antiviral therapies. HPV uses cellular splicing to produce the full suite of viral mRNAs. Members of the serine/arginine rich (SR) protein family can positively regulate splicing. SR protein activity and cellular location is regulated by phosphorylation of their serine-arginine domains. SR protein kinases (SRPK) can phosphorylate SR proteins. This licenses their nuclear entry and promotes nuclear splicing together with another SR protein kinase, Clk1. SRPIN340 is a specific inhibitor of SRPK1. It has been reported to inhibit replication of HCV, Sindbis virus and HIV. We show here that SRPIN340 inhibits the expression of the viral replication and transcription factor, E2. Loss of HPV E4 and L1 late proteins was also observed. RNA sequencing showed SRPIN340 treatment resulted in gene expression changes opposite to those induced by HPV16 infection. In particular, the loss of the epithelial barrier was restored. SRPIN340 treatment led to changes in alternative splicing of 935 RNAs and pathway analysis showed a predominance of changes to RNAs encoding proteins involved in chromatin conformation, DNA repair and RNA processing. Short term SRPIN340 treatment (two to three days) was not associated with changes in proliferation or differentiation of keratinocytes. Since SRPK1 controls the E2 viral replication and transcription factor, targeting this kinase, or the phosphorylation events it mediates, could be considered as a therapeutic strategy for HPV16 infection.

Alternative Splicing in the Heart: The Therapeutic Potential of Regulating the Regulators

Alternative splicing allows a single gene to produce a variety of protein isoforms. Changes in splicing isoform usage characterize virtually every stage of the differentiation process and define the physiological differences between cardiomyocytes with different function, at different stages of development, and pathological function. Recent identification of cardiac splicing factors provided insights into the mechanisms underlying alternative splicing and revealed how these splicing factors impact functional properties of the heart. Alterations of the splicing of sarcomeric genes, cell signaling proteins, and ion channels have been associated with the development of pathological conditions such as cardiomyopathy and arrhythmia. RBM20, RBM24, PTBP1, RBFOX, and QKI play key roles in cardiac development and pathology. A better understanding of their regulation will yield insights into healthy cardiac development and inform the development of molecular therapeutics.

SRSF2 safeguards efficient transcription of DNA damage and repair genes

The serine-/arginine-rich splicing factor 2 (SRSF2) plays pivotal roles in pre-mRNA processing and gene transcription. Recurrent mutations, particularly a proline-to-histidine substitution at position 95 (P95H), are common in neoplastic diseases. Here, we assess SRSF2's diverse functions in squamous cell carcinoma. We show that SRSF2 deletion or homozygous P95H mutation both cause extensive DNA damage leading to cell-cycle arrest. Mechanistically, SRSF2 regulates efficient bi-directional transcription of DNA replication and repair genes, independent from its function in splicing. Further, SRSF2 haploinsufficiency induces DNA damage without halting the cell cycle. Exposing mouse skin to tumor-promoting carcinogens enhances the clonal expansion of heterozygous Srsf2 P95H epidermal cells but unexpectedly inhibits tumor formation. To survive carcinogen treatment, Srsf2 P95H+/- cells undergo substantial transcriptional rewiring and restore bi-directional gene expression. Thus, our study underscores SRSF2's importance in regulating transcription to orchestrate the cell cycle and the DNA damage response.

Insights into the Mode and Mechanism of Interactions Between RNA and RNA-Binding Proteins

Both RNA and protein play important roles in the process of gene expression and regulation, and it has been widely discussed that the interactions between RNA and protein affect gene transcription, translation efficiency, and post-translational modification. As an important class of proteins, RNA-binding proteins bind to RNA and affect gene expression in various ways. Here, we review the structural and functional properties of RNA-binding proteins and illustrate the specific modes of interactions between RNA and RNA-binding proteins and describe the involvement of some representative RNA-binding protein families in this network of action. Furthermore, we also explore the association that exists between RNA-binding proteins and the onset of diseases, as well as their potential in terms of serving as a therapeutic tool for the treatment of diseases. The in-depth exploration of the interactions between RNA and RNA-binding proteins reveals the dynamic process of gene expression and regulation, as well as offering valuable insights to advance the progress in the dissection of disease mechanisms and research and discovery of drugs, which promote the development of molecular biology.

Defenders of the Transcriptome: Guard Protein-Mediated mRNA Quality Control in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cell survival depends on precise gene expression, which is controlled sequentially. The guard proteins surveil mRNAs from their synthesis in the nucleus to their translation in the cytoplasm. Although the proteins within this group share many similarities, they play distinct roles in controlling nuclear mRNA maturation and cytoplasmic translation by supporting the degradation of faulty transcripts. Notably, this group is continuously expanding, currently including the RNA-binding proteins Npl3, Gbp2, Hrb1, Hrp1, and Nab2 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Some of the human serine-arginine (SR) splicing factors (SRSFs) show remarkable similarities to the yeast guard proteins and may be considered as functional homologues. Here, we provide a comprehensive summary of their crucial mRNA surveillance functions and their implications for cellular health.

In silico identification of a novel Cdc2-like kinase 2 (CLK2) inhibitor in triple negative breast cancer

Dysregulation of RNA splicing processes is intricately linked to tumorigenesis in various cancers, especially breast cancer. Cdc2-like kinase 2 (CLK2), an oncogenic RNA-splicing kinase pivotal in breast cancer, plays a significant role, particularly in the context of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), a subtype marked by substantial medical challenges due to its low survival rates. In this study, we employed a structure-based virtual screening (SBVS) method to identify potential CLK2 inhibitors with novel chemical structures for treating TNBC. Compound 670551 emerged as a novel CLK2 inhibitor with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 619.7 nM. Importantly, Compound 670551 exhibited high selectivity for CLK2 over other protein kinases. Functionally, this compound significantly reduced the survival and proliferation of TNBC cells. Results from a cell-based assay demonstrated that this inhibitor led to a decrease in RNA splicing proteins, such as SRSF4 and SRSF6, resulting in cell apoptosis. In summary, we identified a novel CLK2 inhibitor as a promising potential treatment for TNBC therapy.

The serine-arginine (SR) protein UmRrm75 from Ustilago maydis is a functional ortholog of yeast ScHrb1

The Basidiomycete fungus Ustilago maydis is a biotrophic pathogen of maize. The U. maydis UmRrm75 gene encodes an RNA-binding protein (RBP). In a previous study, we reported that ΔUmRrm75 null mutant strains accumulate H2O2, exhibit slow growth, and have decreased virulence in maize. Herein, we describe UmRrm75 as an ortholog of the ScHrb1, a serine-arginine (SR) protein identified in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which plays a role in nuclear quality control, specifically in mRNA splicing and export processes. The yeast ScHrb1 mutant (ΔScHrb1) exhibits an increased sensitivity to elevated levels of boron. We noticed that the ΔScHrb1 displayed sensitivity to H2O2, which is consistent with previous findings in the ΔUmRrm75 mutant. We reversed the sensitivity phenotypes of boron and H2O2 by introducing the UmRrm75 gene into the ΔScHrb1 mutant. Furthermore, we generated complementary strains of U. maydis by expressing UmRrm75-GFP under its native promoter in the ∆UmRrm75 mutants. The UmRrm75-GFP/∆UmRrm75 complementary strains successfully recovered their growth capability under stressors, H2O2 and boron, resembling the parental strains FB2 and AB33. The subcellular localization experiments conducted in U. maydis revealed that the UmRrm75 protein is localized within the nucleus of both yeast and hyphae. The nuclear localization of the UmRrm75 protein remains unaltered even under conditions of heat or oxidative stress. This suggests that UmRrm75 might perform its RBP activity in the nucleus, as previously reported for ScHrb1. Our data contribute to understanding the role of the nuclear RBP UmRrm75 from the corn smut fungus U. maydis.

SRSF1 interactome determined by proximity labeling reveals direct interaction with spliceosomal RNA helicase DDX23

SRSF1 is the founding member of the SR protein family. It is required-interchangeably with other SR proteins-for pre-mRNA splicing in vitro, and it regulates various alternative splicing events. Dysregulation of SRSF1 expression contributes to cancer and other pathologies. Here, we characterized SRSF1's interactome using proximity labeling and mass spectrometry. This approach yielded 190 proteins enriched in the SRSF1 samples, independently of the N- or C-terminal location of the biotin-labeling domain. The detected proteins reflect established functions of SRSF1 in pre-mRNA splicing and reveal additional connections to spliceosome proteins, in addition to other recently identified functions. We validated a robust interaction with the spliceosomal RNA helicase DDX23/PRP28 using bimolecular fluorescence complementation and in vitro binding assays. The interaction is mediated by the N-terminal RS-like domain of DDX23 and both RRM1 and the RS domain of SRSF1. During pre-mRNA splicing, DDX23's ATPase activity is essential for the pre-B to B spliceosome complex transition and for release of U1 snRNP from the 5' splice site. We show that the RS-like region of DDX23's N-terminal domain is important for spliceosome incorporation, while larger deletions in this domain alter subnuclear localization. We discuss how the identified interaction of DDX23 with SRSF1 and other SR proteins may be involved in the regulation of these processes.

The role and mechanism of RNA-binding proteins in bone metabolism and osteoporosis

Osteoporosis is a prevalent chronic metabolic bone disease that poses a significant risk of fractures or mortality in elderly individuals. Its pathophysiological basis is often attributed to postmenopausal estrogen deficiency and natural aging, making the progression of primary osteoporosis among elderly people, especially older women, seemingly inevitable. The treatment and prevention of osteoporosis progression have been extensively discussed. Recently, as researchers delve deeper into the molecular biological mechanisms of bone remodeling, they have come to realize the crucial role of posttranscriptional gene control in bone metabolism homeostasis. RNA-binding proteins, as essential actors in posttranscriptional activities, may exert influence on osteoporosis progression by regulating the RNA life cycle. This review compiles recent findings on the involvement of RNA-binding proteins in abnormal bone metabolism in osteoporosis and describes the impact of some key RNA-binding proteins on bone metabolism regulation. Additionally, we explore the potential and rationale for modulating RNA-binding proteins as a means of treating osteoporosis, with an overview of drugs that target these proteins.

SCR106 splicing factor modulates abiotic stress responses by maintaining RNA splicing in rice

Plants employ sophisticated molecular machinery to fine-tune their responses to growth, developmental, and stress cues. Gene expression influences plant cellular responses through regulatory processes such as transcription and splicing. Pre-mRNA is alternatively spliced to increase the genome coding potential and further regulate expression. Serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, a family of pre-mRNA splicing factors, recognize splicing cis-elements and regulate both constitutive and alternative splicing. Several studies have reported SR protein genes in the rice genome, subdivided into six subfamilies based on their domain structures. Here, we identified a new splicing factor in rice with an RNA recognition motif (RRM) and SR-dipeptides, which is related to the SR proteins, subfamily SC. OsSCR106 regulates pre-mRNA splicing under abiotic stress conditions. It localizes to the nuclear speckles, a major site for pre-mRNA splicing in the cell. The loss-of-function scr106 mutant is hypersensitive to salt, abscisic acid, and low-temperature stress, and harbors a developmental abnormality indicated by the shorter length of the shoot and root. The hypersensitivity to stress phenotype was rescued by complementation using OsSCR106 fused behind its endogenous promoter. Global gene expression and genome-wide splicing analysis in wild-type and scr106 seedlings revealed that OsSCR106 regulates its targets, presumably through regulating the alternative 3'-splice site. Under salt stress conditions, we identified multiple splice isoforms regulated by OsSCR106. Collectively, our results suggest that OsSCR106 is an important splicing factor that plays a crucial role in accurate pre-mRNA splicing and regulates abiotic stress responses in plants.

TIM22 and TIM29 inhibit HBV replication by up-regulating SRSF1 expression

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious global health problem. After the viruses infect the human body, the host can respond to the virus infection by coordinating various cellular responses, in which mitochondria play an important role. Evidence has shown that mitochondrial proteins are involved in host antiviral responses. In this study, we found that the overexpression of TIM22 and TIM29, the members of the inner membrane translocase TIM22 complex, significantly reduced the level of intracellular HBV DNA and RNA and secreted HBV surface antigens and E antigen. The effects of TIM22 and TIM29 on HBV replication and transcription is attributed to the reduction of core promoter activity mediated by the increased expression of SRSF1 which acts as a suppressor of HBV replication. This study provides new evidence for the critical role of mitochondria in the resistance of HBV infection and new targets for the development of treatment against HBV infection.

Alphavirus-induced transcriptional and translational shutoffs play major roles in blocking the formation of stress granules

IMPORTANCE

Our study highlights the mechanisms behind the cell's resistance to stress granule (SG) formation after infection with Old World alphaviruses. Shortly after infection, the replication of these viruses hinders the cell's ability to form SGs, even when exposed to chemical inducers such as sodium arsenite. This resistance is primarily attributed to virus-induced transcriptional and translational shutoffs, rather than interactions between the viral nsP3 and the key components of SGs, G3BP1/2, or the ADP-ribosylhydrolase activity of nsP3 macro domain. While interactions between G3BPs and nsP3 are essential for the formation of viral replication complexes, their role in regulating SG development appears to be small, if any. Cells harboring replicating viruses or replicons with lower abilities to inhibit transcription and/or translation, but expressing wild-type nsP3, retain the ability for SG development. Understanding these mechanisms of regulation of SG formation contributes to our knowledge of viral replication and the intricate relationships between alphaviruses and host cells.

Towards understandings of serine/arginine-rich splicing factors

Serine/arginine-rich splicing factors (SRSFs) refer to twelve RNA-binding proteins which regulate splice site recognition and spliceosome assembly during precursor messenger RNA splicing. SRSFs also participate in other RNA metabolic events, such as transcription, translation and nonsense-mediated decay, during their shuttling between nucleus and cytoplasm, making them indispensable for genome diversity and cellular activity. Of note, aberrant SRSF expression and/or mutations elicit fallacies in gene splicing, leading to the generation of pathogenic gene and protein isoforms, which highlights the therapeutic potential of targeting SRSF to treat diseases. In this review, we updated current understanding of SRSF structures and functions in RNA metabolism. Next, we analyzed SRSF-induced aberrant gene expression and their pathogenic outcomes in cancers and non-tumor diseases. The development of some well-characterized SRSF inhibitors was discussed in detail. We hope this review will contribute to future studies of SRSF functions and drug development targeting SRSFs.

Alphavirus-induced transcriptional and translational shutoffs play major roles in blocking the formation of stress granules

Alphavirus infections cause multiple alterations in the intracellular environment that can have both positive and negative effects on viral replication. The Old World alphaviruses, such as Sindbis (SINV), chikungunya (CHIKV), and Semliki Forest viruses, hinder the ability of vertebrate cells to form stress granules (SGs). Previously, this inhibitory function was attributed to the hypervariable domain (HVD) of nsP3, which sequesters the key components of SGs, G3BP1 and G3BP2, and to the nsP3 macro domain. The macro domain possesses ADP-ribosylhydrolase activity, which can diminish the ADP-ribosylation of G3BP1 during viral replication. However, our recent findings do not support the prevailing notions. We demonstrate that the interactions between SINV- or CHIKV-specific nsP3s and G3BPs, and the ADP-ribosylhydrolase activity are not major contributors to the inhibitory process, at least when nsP3 is expressed at biologically relevant levels. Instead, the primary factors responsible for suppressing SG formation are virus-induced transcriptional and translational shutoffs that rapidly develop within the first few hours post infection. Poorly replicating SINV variants carrying mutated nsP3 HVD still inhibit SG development even in the presence of NaAs. Conversely, SINV mutants lacking transcription and/or translation inhibitory functions lose their ability to inhibit SGs, despite expressing high levels of wt nsP3. Moreover, we found that stable cell lines expressing GFP-nsP3 fusions retain the capacity to form SGs when exposed to sodium arsenite. However, our results do not rule out a possibility that additional virus-induced changes in cell biology may contribute to the suppression of SG formation.

Inhibition of splicing factors SF3A3 and SRSF5 contributes to As3+/Se4+ combination-mediated proliferation suppression and apoptosis induction in acute promyelocytic leukemia cells

The low-dose combination of Arsenite (As³⁺) and selenite (Se⁴⁺) has the advantages of lower biological toxicity and better curative effects for acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL) therapy. However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Here, based on the fact that the combination of 2 μM A³⁺ plus 4 μM Se⁴⁺ possessed a stronger anti-leukemic effect on APL cell line NB4 as compared with each individual, we employed iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics to identify a total of 58 proteins that were differentially expressed after treatment with As³⁺/Se⁴⁺ combination rather than As³⁺ or Se⁴⁺ alone, the majority of which were involved in spliceosome pathway. Among them, eight proteins stood out by virtue of their splicing function and significant changes. They were validated as being decreased in mRNA and protein levels under As³⁺/Se⁴⁺ combination treatment. Further functional studies showed that only knockdown of two splicing factors, SF3A3 and SRSF5, suppressed the growth of NB4 cells. The reduction of SF3A3 was found to cause G1/S cell cycle arrest, which resulted in proliferation inhibition. Moreover, SRSF5 downregulation induced cell apoptosis through the activation of caspase-3. Taken together, these findings indicate that SF3A3 and SRSF5 function as pro-leukemic factors and can be potential novel therapeutic targets for APL.

Oncogenic SRSF3 in health and diseases

Serine/arginine rich splicing factor 3 (SRSF3) is an important multi-functional splicing factor, and has attracted increasing attentions in the past thirty years. The importance of SRSF3 is evidenced by its impressively conserved protein sequences in all animals and alternative exon 4 which represents an autoregulatory mechanism to maintain its proper cellular expression level. New functions of SRSF3 have been continuously discovered recently, especially its oncogenic function. SRSF3 plays essential roles in many cellular processes by regulating almost all aspects of RNA biogenesis and processing of many target genes, and thus, contributes to tumorigenesis when overexpressed or disregulated. This review updates and highlights the gene, mRNA, and protein structure of SRSF3, the regulatory mechanisms of SRSF3 expression, and the characteristics of SRSF3 targets and binding sequences that contribute to SRSF3's diverse molecular and cellular functions in tumorigenesis and human diseases.

Serine-arginine protein kinases and their targets in viral infection and their inhibition

Accumulating evidence has consolidated the interaction between viral infection and host alternative splicing. Serine-arginine (SR) proteins are a class of highly conserved splicing factors critical for the spliceosome maturation, alternative splicing and RNA metabolism. Serine-arginine protein kinases (SRPKs) are important kinases that specifically phosphorylate SR proteins to regulate their distribution and activities in the central pre-mRNA splicing and other cellular processes. In addition to the predominant SR proteins, other cytoplasmic proteins containing a serine-arginine repeat domain, including viral proteins, have been identified as substrates of SRPKs. Viral infection triggers a myriad of cellular events in the host and it is therefore not surprising that viruses explore SRPKs-mediated phosphorylation as an important regulatory node in virus-host interactions. In this review, we briefly summarize the regulation and biological function of SRPKs, highlighting their involvement in the infection process of several viruses, such as viral replication, transcription and capsid assembly. In addition, we review the structure-function relationships of currently available inhibitors of SRPKs and discuss their putative use as antivirals against well-characterized viruses or newly emerging viruses. We also highlight the viral proteins and cellular substrates targeted by SRPKs as potential antiviral therapeutic candidates.

Insights into established and emerging roles of SR protein family in plants and animals

Splicing of pre-mRNA is an essential part of eukaryotic gene expression. Serine-/arginine-rich (SR) proteins are highly conserved RNA-binding proteins present in all metazoans and plants. SR proteins are involved in constitutive and alternative splicing, thereby regulating the transcriptome and proteome diversity in the organism. In addition to their role in splicing, SR proteins are also involved in mRNA export, nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, mRNA stability, and translation. Due to their pivotal roles in mRNA metabolism, SR proteins play essential roles in normal growth and development. Hence, any misregulation of this set of proteins causes developmental defects in both plants and animals. SR proteins from the animal kingdom are extensively studied for their canonical and noncanonical functions. Compared with the animal kingdom, plant genomes harbor more SR protein-encoding genes and greater diversity of SR proteins, which are probably evolved for plant-specific functions. Evidence from both plants and animals confirms the essential role of SR proteins as regulators of gene expression influencing cellular processes, developmental stages, and disease conditions. This article is categorized under: RNA Processing > Splicing Mechanisms RNA Processing > Splicing Regulation/Alternative Splicing.

Investigation of the effect of SRSF9 overexpression on HIV-1 production

Serine-arginine-rich splicing factors (SRSFs) are members of RNA processing proteins in the serine-arginine-rich (SR) family that could regulate the alternative splicing of the human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1). Whether SRSF9 has any effect on HIV-1 regulation requires elucidation. Here, we report for the first time the effects and mechanisms of SRSF9 on HIV-1 regulation. The overexpression of SRSF9 inhibits viral production and infectivity in both HEK293T and MT-4 cells. Deletion analysis of SRSF9 determined that the RNA regulation motif domain of SRSF9 is important for anti-HIV-1 effects. Furthermore, overexpression of SRSF9 increases multiple spliced forms of viral mRNA, such as Vpr mRNA. These data suggest that SRSF9 overexpression inhibits HIV-1 production by inducing the imbalanced HIV-1 mRNA splicing that could be exploited further for a novel HIV-1 therapeutic molecule. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(12): 639-644].

Splicing factor SRSF3 represses translation of p21cip1/waf1 mRNA

Serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 3 (SRSF3) is an RNA binding protein that most often regulates gene expression at the splicing level. Although the role of SRSF3 in mRNA splicing in the nucleus is well known, its splicing-independent role outside of the nucleus is poorly understood. Here, we found that SRSF3 exerts a translational control of p21 mRNA. Depletion of SRSF3 induces cellular senescence and increases the expression of p21 independent of p53. Consistent with the expression patterns of SRSF3 and p21 mRNA in the TCGA database, SRSF3 knockdown increases the p21 mRNA level and its translation efficiency as well. SRSF3 physically associates with the 3'UTR region of p21 mRNA and the translational initiation factor, eIF4A1. Our study proposes a model in which SRSF3 regulates translation by interacting with eIF4A1 at the 3'UTR region of p21 mRNA. We also found that SRSF3 localizes to the cytoplasmic RNA granule along with eIF4A1, which may assist in translational repression therein. Thus, our results provide a new mode of regulation for p21 expression, a crucial regulator of the cell cycle and senescence, which occurs at the translational level and involves SRSF3.

RNase L activation in the cytoplasm induces aberrant processing of mRNAs in the nucleus

The antiviral endoribonuclease, RNase L, is activated by the mammalian innate immune response to destroy host and viral RNA to ultimately reduce viral gene expression. Herein, we show that RNase L and RNase L-mediated mRNA decay are primarily localized to the cytoplasm. Consequently, RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus upon RNase L activation due to the presence of intact nuclear RNA. The re-localization of RBPs to the nucleus coincides with global alterations to RNA processing in the nucleus. While affecting many host mRNAs, these alterations are pronounced in mRNAs encoding type I and type III interferons and correlate with their retention in the nucleus and reduction in interferon protein production. Similar RNA processing defects also occur during infection with either dengue virus or SARS-CoV-2 when RNase L is activated. These findings reveal that the distribution of RBPs between the nucleus and cytosol is dictated by the availability of RNA in each compartment. Thus, viral infections that trigger RNase L-mediated cytoplasmic RNA in the cytoplasm also alter RNA processing in the nucleus, resulting in an ingenious multi-step immune block to protein biogenesis.

SR Splicing Factors Promote Cancer via Multiple Regulatory Mechanisms

Substantial emerging evidence supports that dysregulated RNA metabolism is associated with tumor initiation and development. Serine/Arginine-Rich proteins (SR) are a number of ultraconserved and structurally related proteins that contain a characteristic RS domain rich in arginine and serine residues. SR proteins perform a critical role in spliceosome assembling and conformational transformation, contributing to precise alternative RNA splicing. Moreover, SR proteins have been reported to participate in multiple other RNA-processing-related mechanisms than RNA splicing, such as genome stability, RNA export, and translation. The dysregulation of SR proteins has been reported to contribute to tumorigenesis through multiple mechanisms. Here we reviewed the different biological roles of SR proteins and strategies for functional rectification of SR proteins that may serve as potential therapeutic approaches for cancer.

IQGAP1 and RNA Splicing in the Context of Head and Neck via Phosphoproteomics

IQGAP1 (IQ motif-containing GTPase-activating protein 1) scaffolds several signaling pathways in mammalian cells that are implicated in carcinogenesis, including the RAS and PI3K pathways that involve multiple protein kinases. IQGAP1 has been shown to promote head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC); however, the underlying mechanism(s) remains unclear. Here, we report a mass spectrometry-based analysis identifying differences in phosphorylation of cellular proteins in vivo and in vitro in the presence or absence of IQGAP1. By comparing the esophageal phosphoproteome profiles between Iqgap1+/+ and Iqgap1-/- mice, we identified RNA splicing as one of the most altered cellular processes. Serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 6 (SRSF6) was the protein with the most downregulated levels of phosphorylation in Iqgap1-/- tissue. We confirmed that the absence of IQGAP1 reduced SRSF6 phosphorylation both in vivo and in vitro. We then expanded our analysis to human normal oral keratinocytes. Again, we found factors involved in RNA splicing to be highly altered in the phosphoproteome profile upon genetic disruption of IQGAP1. Both the Clinical Proteomic Tumor Analysis Consortium (CPTAC) and the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data sets indicate that phosphorylation of splicing-related proteins is important in HNSCC prognosis. The Biological General Repository for Interaction Datasets (BioGRID) repository also suggested multiple interactions between IQGAP1 and splicing-related proteins. Based on these collective observations, we propose that IQGAP1 regulates the phosphorylation of splicing proteins, which potentially affects their splicing activities and, therefore, contributes to HNSCC. Raw data are available from the MassIVE database with identifier MSV000087770.

SR Protein Kinases Regulate the Splicing of Cardiomyopathy-Relevant Genes via Phosphorylation of the RSRSP Stretch in RBM20

(1) Background: RNA binding motif 20 (RBM20) regulates mRNA splicing specifically in muscle tissues. Missense mutations in the arginine/serine (RS) domain of RBM20 lead to abnormal gene splicing and have been linked to severe dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) in human patients and animal models. Interestingly, many of the reported DCM-linked missense mutations in RBM20 are in a highly conserved RSRSP stretch within the RS domain. Recently, it was found that the two Ser residues within this stretch are constitutively phosphorylated, yet the identity of the kinase(s) responsible for phosphorylating these residues, as well as the function of RSRSP phosphorylation, remains unknown. (2) Methods: The ability of three known SR protein kinases (SRPK1, CLK1, and AKT2) to phosphorylate the RBM20 RSRSP stretch and regulate target gene splicing was evaluated by using both in vitro and in vivo approaches. (3) Results: We found that all three kinases phosphorylated S638 and S640 in the RSRSP stretch and regulated RBM20 target gene splicing. While SRPK1 and CLK1 were both capable of directly phosphorylating the RS domain in RBM20, whether AKT2-mediated control of the RS domain phosphorylation is direct or indirect could not be determined. (4) Conclusions: Our results indicate that SR protein kinases regulate the splicing of a cardiomyopathy-relevant gene by modulating phosphorylation of the RSRSP stretch in RBM20. These findings suggest that SR protein kinases may be potential targets for the treatment of RBM20 cardiomyopathy.

Emergent Role of IFITM1/3 towards Splicing Factor (SRSF1) and Antigen-Presenting Molecule (HLA-B) in Cervical Cancer

The IFITM restriction factors play a role in cancer cell progression through undefined mechanisms. We investigate new protein-protein interactions for IFITM1/3 in the context of cancer that would shed some light on how IFITM1/3 attenuate the expression of targeted proteins such as HLA-B. SBP-tagged IFITM1 protein was used to identify an association of IFITM1 protein with the SRSF1 splicing factor and transporter of mRNA to the ribosome. Using in situ proximity ligation assays, we confirmed a predominant cytosolic protein-protein association for SRSF1 and IFITM1/3. Accordingly, IFITM1/3 interacted with HLA-B mRNA in response to IFNγ stimulation using RNA-protein proximity ligation assays. In addition, RT-qPCR assays in IFITM1/IFITM3 null cells and wt-SiHa cells indicated that HLA-B gene expression at the mRNA level does not account for lowered HLA-B protein synthesis in response to IFNγ. Complementary, shotgun RNA sequencing did not show major transcript differences between IFITM1/IFITM3 null cells and wt-SiHa cells. Furthermore, ribosome profiling using sucrose gradient sedimentation identified a reduction in 80S ribosomal fraction an IFITM1/IFITM3 null cells compared to wild type. It was partially reverted by IFITM1/3 complementation. Our data link IFITM1/3 proteins to HLA-B mRNA and SRSF1 and, all together, our results begin to elucidate how IFITM1/3 catalyze the synthesis of target proteins. IFITMs are widely studied for their role in inhibiting viruses, and multiple studies have associated IFITMs with cancer progression. Our study has identified new proteins associated with IFITMs which support their role in mediating protein expression; a pivotal function that is highly relevant for viral infection and cancer progression. Our results suggest that IFITM1/3 affect the expression of targeted proteins; among them, we identified HLA-B. Changes in HLA-B expression could impact the presentation and recognition of oncogenic antigens on the cell surface by cytotoxic T cells and, ultimately, limit tumor cell eradication. In addition, the role of IFITMs in mediating protein abundance is relevant, as it has the potential for regulating the expression of viral and oncogenic proteins.

Nuclear RNA binding regulates TDP-43 nuclear localization and passive nuclear export

Nuclear clearance of the RNA-binding protein TDP-43 is a hallmark of neurodegeneration and an important therapeutic target. Our current understanding of TDP-43 nucleocytoplasmic transport does not fully explain its predominantly nuclear localization or mislocalization in disease. Here, we show that TDP-43 exits nuclei by passive diffusion, independent of facilitated mRNA export. RNA polymerase II blockade and RNase treatment induce TDP-43 nuclear efflux, suggesting that nuclear RNAs sequester TDP-43 in nuclei and limit its availability for passive export. Induction of TDP-43 nuclear efflux by short, GU-rich oligomers (presumably by outcompeting TDP-43 binding to endogenous nuclear RNAs), and nuclear retention conferred by splicing inhibition, demonstrate that nuclear TDP-43 localization depends on binding to GU-rich nuclear RNAs. Indeed, RNA-binding domain mutations markedly reduce TDP-43 nuclear localization and abolish transcription blockade-induced nuclear efflux. Thus, the nuclear abundance of GU-RNAs, dictated by the balance of transcription, pre-mRNA processing, and RNA export, regulates TDP-43 nuclear localization.

UNC13B Promote Arsenic Trioxide Resistance in Chronic Lymphoid Leukemia Through Mitochondria Quality Control

In clinical practice, arsenic trioxide can be used to treat a subset of R/R CML patients, but resistance tends to reappear quickly. We designed an experiment to study arsenic trioxide resistance in K-562 cells. Previously, we identified the UNC13B gene as potentially responsible for arsenic trioxide resistance in K-562 cells via gene chip screening followed by high-content screening. We aimed to investigate the role and mechanism of the UNC13B gene in K-562 cells, an arsenic trioxide-resistant chronic myeloid leukemia cell line. In vitro lentiviral vector-mediated UNC13B siRNA transfection was performed on K-562 cells. The roles of UNC13B in cell proliferation, apoptosis and cell cycle pathways, and colony formation were analyzed by CCK-8 assay, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and soft agar culture, respectively. Gene chip screening was used to define the possible downstream pathways of UNC13B. Western blot was performed to further validate the possible genes mediated by UNC13B for arsenic trioxide resistance in patients with chronic myeloid leukemia. UNC13B downregulation significantly inhibited growth, promoted apoptosis, decreased colony formation, reduced the duration of the G1 phase, and increased the duration of the S phase of K-562 cells. Western blot results confirmed that UNC13B may modulate the apoptosis and proliferation of arsenic trioxide-resistant chronic myeloid leukemia cells through the mediation of MAP3K7, CDK4, and PINK1. UNC13B is a potential therapeutic target for patients with arsenic trioxide-resistant chronic myeloid leukemia.

Multifaceted and Intricate Oncogenic Mechanisms of NDRG1 in Head and Neck Cancer Depend on Its C-Terminal 3R-Motif

N-Myc downstream-regulated 1 (NDRG1) has inconsistent oncogenic functions in various cancers. We surveyed and characterized the role of NDRG1 in head and neck cancer (HNC). Cellular methods included spheroid cell formation, clonogenic survival, cell viability, and Matrigel invasion assays. Molecular techniques included transcriptomic profiling, RT-qPCR, immunoblotting, in vitro phosphorylation, immunofluorescent staining, and confocal microscopy. Prognostic significance was assessed by Kaplan–Meier analysis. NDRG1 participated in diverse oncogenic functions in HNC cells, mainly stress response and cell motility. Notably, NDRG1 contributed to spheroid cell growth, radio-chemoresistance, and upregulation of stemness-related markers (CD44 and Twist1). NDRG1 facilitated cell migration and invasion, and was associated with modulation of the extracellular matrix molecules (fibronectin, vimentin). Characterizing the 3R-motif in NDRG1 revealed its mechanism in the differential regulation of the phenotypes. The 3R-motif displayed minimal effect on cancer stemness but was crucial for cell motility. Phosphorylating the motif by GSK3b at serine residues led to its nuclear translocation to promote motility. Clinical analyses supported the oncogenic function of NDRG1, which was overexpressed in HNC and associated with poor prognosis. The data elucidate the multifaceted and intricate mechanisms of NDRG1 in HNC. NDRG1 may be a prognostic indicator or therapeutic target for refractory HNC.

Rethinking nomenclature for interspecies cell fusions

Cell fusions have a long history of supporting biomedical research. These experimental models, historically referred to as 'somatic cell hybrids', involve combining the plasma membranes of two cells and merging their nuclei within a single cytoplasm. Cell fusion studies involving human and chimpanzee pluripotent stem cells, rather than somatic cells, highlight the need for responsible communication and a revised nomenclature. Applying the terms 'hybrid' and 'parental' to the fused and source cell lines, respectively, evokes reproductive relationships that do not exist between humans and other species. These misnomers become more salient in the context of fused pluripotent stem cells derived from different but closely related species. Here, we propose a precise, versatile and generalizable framework to describe these fused cell lines. We recommend the term 'composite cell line', to distinguish cell lines that are experimentally created through fusions from both reproductive hybrids and natural cell fusion events without obscuring the model in overly technical terms. For scientific audiences, we further recommend technical nomenclature that describes the contributing species, ploidy and cell type.

RBM20 phosphorylation and its role in nucleocytoplasmic transport and cardiac pathogenesis

Arginine-serine (RS) domain(s) in splicing factors are critical for protein-protein interaction in pre-mRNA splicing. Phosphorylation of RS domain is important for splicing control and nucleocytoplasmic transport in the cell. RNA-binding motif 20 (RBM20) is a splicing factor primarily expressed in the heart. A previous study using phospho-antibody against RS domain showed that RS domain can be phosphorylated. However, its actual phosphorylation sites and function have not been characterized. Using middle-down mass spectrometry, we identified 16 phosphorylation sites, two of which (S638 and S640 in rats, or S637 and S639 in mice) were located in the RSRSP stretch in the RS domain. Mutations on S638 and S640 regulated splicing, promoted nucleocytoplasmic transport and protein-RNA condensates. Phosphomimetic mutations on S638 and S640 indicated that phosphorylation was not the major cause for RBM20 nucleocytoplasmic transport and condensation in vitro. We generated a S637A knock-in (KI) mouse model (Rbm20S637A ) and observed the reduced RBM20 phosphorylation. The KI mice exhibited aberrant gene splicing, protein condensates, and a dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM)-like phenotype. Transcriptomic profiling demonstrated that KI mice had altered expression and splicing of genes involving cardiac dysfunction, protein localization, and condensation. Our in vitro data showed that phosphorylation was not a direct cause for nucleocytoplasmic transport and protein condensation. Subsequently, the in vivo results reveal that RBM20 mutations led to cardiac pathogenesis. However, the role of phosphorylation in vivo needs further investigation.

Nuclear mRNA Quality Control and Cytoplasmic NMD Are Linked by the Guard Proteins Gbp2 and Hrb1

Pre-mRNA splicing is critical for cells, as defects in this process can lead to altered open reading frames and defective proteins, potentially causing neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Introns are removed in the nucleus and splicing is documented by the addition of exon-junction-complexes (EJCs) at exon-exon boundaries. This “memory” of splicing events is important for the ribosome, which translates the RNAs in the cytoplasm. In case a stop codon was detected before an EJC, translation is blocked and the RNA is eliminated by the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). In the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae, two guard proteins, Gbp2 and Hrb1, have been identified as nuclear quality control factors for splicing. In their absence, intron-containing mRNAs leak into the cytoplasm. Their presence retains transcripts until the process is completed and they release the mRNAs by recruitment of the export factor Mex67. On transcripts that experience splicing problems, these guard proteins recruit the nuclear RNA degradation machinery. Interestingly, they continue their quality control function on exported transcripts. They support NMD by inhibiting translation and recruiting the cytoplasmic degradation factors. In this way, they link the nuclear and cytoplasmic quality control systems. These discoveries are also intriguing for humans, as homologues of these guard proteins are present also in multicellular organisms. Here, we provide an overview of the quality control mechanisms of pre-mRNA splicing, and present Gbp2 and Hrb1, as well as their human counterparts, as important players in these pathways.

Nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling of splicing factor SRSF1 is required for development and cilia function

Shuttling RNA-binding proteins coordinate nuclear and cytoplasmic steps of gene expression. The SR family proteins regulate RNA splicing in the nucleus and a subset of them, including SRSF1, shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm affecting post-splicing processes. However, the physiological significance of this remains unclear. Here, we used genome editing to knock-in a nuclear retention signal (NRS) in Srsf1 to create a mouse model harboring an SRSF1 protein that is retained exclusively in the nucleus. Srsf1NRS/NRS mutants displayed small body size, hydrocephalus, and immotile sperm, all traits associated with ciliary defects. We observed reduced translation of a subset of mRNAs and decreased abundance of proteins involved in multiciliogenesis, with disruption of ciliary ultrastructure and motility in cells and tissues derived from this mouse model. These results demonstrate that SRSF1 shuttling is used to reprogram gene expression networks in the context of high cellular demands, as observed here, during motile ciliogenesis.

Biology of the mRNA Splicing Machinery and Its Dysregulation in Cancer Providing Therapeutic Opportunities

Dysregulation of messenger RNA (mRNA) processing—in particular mRNA splicing—is a hallmark of cancer. Compared to normal cells, cancer cells frequently present aberrant mRNA splicing, which promotes cancer progression and treatment resistance. This hallmark provides opportunities for developing new targeted cancer treatments. Splicing of precursor mRNA into mature mRNA is executed by a dynamic complex of proteins and small RNAs called the spliceosome. Spliceosomes are part of the supraspliceosome, a macromolecular structure where all co-transcriptional mRNA processing activities in the cell nucleus are coordinated. Here we review the biology of the mRNA splicing machinery in the context of other mRNA processing activities in the supraspliceosome and present current knowledge of its dysregulation in lung cancer. In addition, we review investigations to discover therapeutic targets in the spliceosome and give an overview of inhibitors and modulators of the mRNA splicing process identified so far. Together, this provides insight into the value of targeting the spliceosome as a possible new treatment for lung cancer.

Noncanonical functions of the serine-arginine-rich splicing factor (SR) family of proteins in development and disease

Members of the serine/arginine (SR)-rich protein family of splicing factors play versatile roles in RNA processing steps and are often essential for normal development. Dynamic changes in RNA processing and turnover allow fast cellular adaptions to a changing microenvironment and thereby closely cooperate with transcription factor networks that establish cell identity within tissues. SR proteins play fundamental roles in the processing of pre-mRNAs by regulating constitutive and alternative splicing. More recently, SR proteins have also been implicated in other aspects of RNA metabolism such as mRNA stability, transport and translation. The- emerging noncanonical functions highlight the multifaceted functions of these SR proteins and identify them as important coordinators of gene expression programmes. Accordingly, most SR proteins are essential for normal cell function and their misregulation contributes to human diseases such as cancer.

Morphological study of TNPO3 and SRSF1 interaction during myogenesis by combining confocal, structured illumination and electron microscopy analysis

Transportin3 (TNPO3) shuttles the SR proteins from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. The SR family includes essential splicing factors, such as SRSF1, that influence alternative splicing, controlling protein diversity in muscle and satellite cell differentiation. Given the importance of alternative splicing in the myogenic process and in the maintenance of healthy muscle, alterations in the splicing mechanism might contribute to the development of muscle disorders. Combining confocal, structured illumination and electron microscopy, we investigated the expression of TNPO3 and SRSF1 during myogenesis, looking at nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. We investigated TNPO3 and its interaction with SRSF1 and we observed that SRSF1 remained mainly localized in the nucleus, while TNPO3 decreased in the cytoplasm and was strongly clustered in the nuclei of differentiated myotubes. In conclusion, combining different imaging techniques led us to describe the behavior of TNPO3 and SRSF1 during myogenesis, showing that their dynamics follow the myogenic process and could influence the proteomic network necessary during myogenesis. The combination of different high-, super- and ultra-resolution imaging techniques led us to describe the behavior of TNPO3 and its interaction with SRSF1, looking at nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments. These observations represent a first step in understanding the role of TNPO3 and SRFSF1 in complex mechanisms, such as myogenesis.

AMP-activated protein kinase regulates β-catenin protein synthesis by phosphorylating serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 9

β-catenin is a multi-functional protein with a central role in regulating embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. The abnormal accumulation of β-catenin, due to disrupted β-catenin degradation or unregulated β-catenin synthesis, causes the development of cancer. A recent study showed that the overexpression of proto-oncogene serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 9 (SRSF9) promotes β-catenin accumulation via binding β-catenin mRNA and enhancing its translation in a manner that is dependent on the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). However, the regulation of the interaction between SRSF9 and mRNA of β-catenin remains unclear. Here, we show that AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylates SRSF9 at the RNA-interacting SWQDLKD motif that plays a major role in determining substrate specificity. The phosphorylation by AMPK inhibits the binding of SRSF9 to β-catenin mRNA and suppresses β-catenin protein synthesis caused by SRSF9 overexpression without changing the β-catenin mRNA levels. Our findings suggest that AMPK activators are potential therapeutic targets for SRSF9-derived overproduction of β-catenin in cancer cells.

Viral regulation of mRNA export with potentials for targeted therapy

Eukaryotic gene expression begins with transcription in the nucleus to synthesize mRNA (messenger RNA), which is subsequently exported to the cytoplasm for translation to protein. Like transcription and translation, mRNA export is an important regulatory step of eukaryotic gene expression. Various factors are involved in regulating mRNA export, and thus gene expression. Intriguingly, some of these factors interact with viral proteins, and such interactions interfere with mRNA export of the host cell, favoring viral RNA export. Hence, viruses hijack host mRNA export machinery for export of their own RNAs from nucleus to cytoplasm for translation to proteins for viral life cycle, suppressing host mRNA export (and thus host gene expression and immune/antiviral response). Therefore, the molecules that can impair the interactions of these mRNA export factors with viral proteins could emerge as antiviral therapeutic agents to suppress viral RNA transport and enhance host mRNA export, thereby promoting host gene expression and immune response. Thus, there has been a number of studies to understand how virus hijacks mRNA export machinery in suppressing host gene expression and promoting its own RNA export to the cytoplasm for translation to proteins required for viral replication/assembly/life cycle towards developing targeted antiviral therapies, as concisely described here.

Poison Exon Splicing Regulates a Coordinated Network of SR Protein Expression during Differentiation and Tumorigenesis

The RNA isoform repertoire is regulated by splicing factor (SF) expression, and alterations in SF levels are associated with disease. SFs contain ultraconserved poison exon (PE) sequences that exhibit greater identity across species than nearby coding exons, but their physiological role and molecular regulation is incompletely understood. We show that PEs in serine-arginine-rich (SR) proteins, a family of 14 essential SFs, are differentially spliced during induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) differentiation and in tumors versus normal tissues. We uncover an extensive cross-regulatory network of SR proteins controlling their expression via alternative splicing coupled to nonsense-mediated decay. We define sequences that regulate PE inclusion and protein expression of the oncogenic SF TRA2β using an RNA-targeting CRISPR screen. We demonstrate location dependency of RS domain activity on regulation of TRA2β-PE using CRISPR artificial SFs. Finally, we develop splice-switching antisense oligonucleotides to reverse the increased skipping of TRA2β-PE detected in breast tumors, altering breast cancer cell viability, proliferation, and migration.

The RNA binding protein SRSF1 is a master switch of gene expression and regulation in the immune system

Serine/Arginine splicing factor 1 (SRSF1) is an RNA binding protein abundantly expressed in most tissues. The pleiotropic functions of SRSF1 exert multiple roles in gene expression by regulating major steps in transcription, processing, export through the nuclear pores and translation of nascent RNA transcripts. The aim of this review is to highlight recent findings in the functions of this protein and to describe its role in immune system development, functions and regulation.

Role of SARS-CoV-2 in Altering the RNA-Binding Protein and miRNA-Directed Post-Transcriptional Regulatory Networks in Humans

The outbreak of a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic has caused a worldwide public health emergency. Due to the constantly evolving nature of the coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2-mediated alterations on post-transcriptional gene regulations across human tissues remain elusive. In this study, we analyzed publicly available genomic datasets to systematically dissect the crosstalk and dysregulation of the human post-transcriptional regulatory networks governed by RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and micro-RNAs (miRs) due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We uncovered that 13 out of 29 SARS-CoV-2-encoded proteins directly interacted with 51 human RBPs, of which the majority of them were abundantly expressed in gonadal tissues and immune cells. We further performed a functional analysis of differentially expressed genes in mock-treated versus SARS-CoV-2-infected lung cells that revealed enrichment for the immune response, cytokine-mediated signaling, and metabolism-associated genes. This study also characterized the alternative splicing events in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells compared to the control, demonstrating that skipped exons and mutually exclusive exons were the most abundant events that potentially contributed to differential outcomes in response to the viral infection. A motif enrichment analysis on the RNA genomic sequence of SARS-CoV-2 clearly revealed the enrichment for RBPs such as SRSFs, PCBPs, ELAVs, and HNRNPs, suggesting the sponging of RBPs by the SARS-CoV-2 genome. A similar analysis to study the interactions of miRs with SARS-CoV-2 revealed functionally important miRs that were highly expressed in immune cells, suggesting that these interactions may contribute to the progression of the viral infection and modulate the host immune response across other human tissues. Given the need to understand the interactions of SARS-CoV-2 with key post-transcriptional regulators in the human genome, this study provided a systematic computational analysis to dissect the role of dysregulated post-transcriptional regulatory networks controlled by RBPs and miRs across tissue types during a SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Role of SARS-CoV-2 in altering the RNA binding protein and miRNA directed post-transcriptional regulatory networks in humans

The outbreak of a novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 responsible for COVID-19 pandemic has caused worldwide public health emergency. Due to the constantly evolving nature of the coronaviruses, SARS-CoV-2 mediated alteration on post-transcriptional gene regulation across human tissues remains elusive. In this study, we analyze publicly available genomic datasets to systematically dissect the crosstalk and dysregulation of human post-transcriptional regulatory networks governed by RNA binding proteins (RBPs) and micro-RNAs (miRs), due to SARS-CoV-2 infection. We uncovered that 13 out of 29 SARS-CoV-2 encoded proteins directly interact with 51 human RBPs of which majority of them were abundantly expressed in gonadal tissues and immune cells. We further performed a functional analysis of differentially expressed genes in mock-treated versus SARS-CoV-2 infected lung cells that revealed enrichment for immune response, cytokine-mediated signaling, and metabolism associated genes. This study also characterized the alternative splicing events in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells compared to control demonstrating that skipped exons and mutually exclusive exons were the most abundant events that potentially contributed to differential outcomes in response to viral infection. Motif enrichment analysis on the RNA genomic sequence of SARS-CoV-2 clearly revealed the enrichment for RBPs such as SRSFs, PCBPs, ELAVs, and HNRNPs suggesting the sponging of RBPs by SARS-CoV-2 genome. A similar analysis to study the interactions of miRs with SARS-CoV-2 revealed functionally important miRs that were highly expressed in immune cells, suggesting that these interactions may contribute to the progression of the viral infection and modulate host immune response across other human tissues. Given the need to understand the interactions of SARS-CoV-2 with key post-transcriptional regulators in the human genome, this study provides a systematic computational analysis to dissect the role of dysregulated post-transcriptional regulatory networks controlled by RBPs and miRs, across tissues types during SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Genome-wide identification and expression analysis of the SR gene family in longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.)

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) is an important commercial fruit tree in southern China. The embryogenesis of longan affects the quality and yield of fruit. A large number of alternative splicing events occurs during somatic embryogenesis (SE), which is regulated by serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins. However, the functions of SR proteins in longan are poorly understood. In this study, 21 Dlo-SR gene family members belonging to six subfamilies were identified, among which Dlo-RSZ20a, Dlo-SR30, Dlo-SR17, Dlo-SR53 and Dlo-SR32 were localized in the nucleus, Dlo-RSZ20b, Dlo-RSZ20c, Dlo-RSZ20d, Dlo-SC18, Dlo-RS2Z29, Dlo-SCL41, and Dlo-SR33 were localized in chloroplasts, and Dlo-RS43, Dlo-SC33, Dlo-SC37, Dlo-RS2Z33, Dlo-RS2Z16, Dlo-RS2Z24, Dlo-SCL43, Dlo-SR112, and Dlo-SR59 were localized in the nucleus and chloroplasts. The Dlo-SR genes exhibited differential expression patterns in different tissues of longan. The transcript levels of Dlo-RSZ20a, Dlo-SC18, Dlo-RS2Z29, DLo-SR59, Dlo-SR53, and Dlo-SR17 were low in all analyzed tissues, whereas Dlo-RS43, Dlo-RS2Z16, Dlo-RS2Z24, and Dlo-SR30 were highly expressed in all tissues. To clarify their function during SE, the transcript levels of Dlo-SR genes were analyzed at different four stages of SE, comprising non-embryonic callus (NEC), friable-embryogenic callus (EC), incomplete compact pro-embryogenic culture (ICpEC) and globular embryo (GE). Interestingly, the transcript levels of Dlo-RS2Z29 and Dlo-SR112 were increased in embryogenic cells compared with the NEC stage, whereas transcript levels of Dlo-RSZ20a, Dlo-RS43, Dlo-SC37, and Dlo-RS2Z16 were especially increased at the GE stage compared with the other stages. Alternative splicing events of Dlo-SR mRNA precursors (pre-mRNAs) was detected during SE, with totals of 41, 29, 35, and 44 events detected during NEC, EC, ICpEC, and GE respectively. Protein–protein interaction analysis showed that SR proteins were capable of interaction with each other. The results indicate that the alternative splicing of Dlo-SR pre-mRNAs occurs during SE and that Dlo-SR proteins may interact to regulate embryogenesis of longan.

SRSF1 regulates exosome microRNA enrichment in human cancer cells

Background

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles containing a variety of biological molecules including microRNAs (miRNAs). We have recently demonstrated that certain miRNA species are selectively and highly enriched in pancreatic cancer exosomes with miR-1246 being the most abundant. Exosome miRNAs have been shown to mediate intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment and promote cancer progression. Therefore, understanding how exosomes selectively enrich specific miRNAs to initiate exosome miRNA signaling in cancer cells is critical to advancing cancer exosome biology.

Results

The aim of this study was to identify RNA binding proteins responsible for selective enrichment of exosome miRNAs in cancer cells. A biotin-labeled miR-1246 probe was used to capture RNA binding proteins (RBPs) from PANC-1 cells. Among the RBPs identified through proteomic analysis, SRSF1, EIF3B and TIA1 were highly associated with the miR-1246 probe. RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) and electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) confirmed the binding of SRSF1 to miR-1246. Lentivirus shRNA knockdown of SRSF1 in pancreatic cancer cells selectively reduced exosome miRNA enrichment whereas GFP-SRSF1 overexpression enhanced the enrichment as analyzed by next generation small RNA sequencing and qRT-PCR. miRNA sequence motif analysis identified a common motif shared by 36/45 of SRSF1-associated exosome miRNAs. EMSA confirmed that shared motif decoys inhibit the binding of SRSF1 to the miR-1246 sequence.

Conclusions

We conclude that SRSF1 mediates selective exosome miRNA enrichment in pancreatic cancer cells by binding to a commonly shared miRNA sequence motif.

HOTAIRM1 regulates neuronal differentiation by modulating NEUROGENIN 2 and the downstream neurogenic cascade

Neuronal differentiation is a timely and spatially regulated process, relying on precisely orchestrated gene expression control. The sequential activation/repression of genes driving cell fate specification is achieved by complex regulatory networks, where transcription factors and noncoding RNAs work in a coordinated manner. Herein, we identify the long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1 (HOXA Transcript Antisense RNA, Myeloid-Specific 1) as a new player in neuronal differentiation. We demonstrate that the neuronal-enriched HOTAIRM1 isoform epigenetically controls the expression of the proneural transcription factor NEUROGENIN 2 that is key to neuronal fate commitment and critical for brain development. We also show that HOTAIRM1 activity impacts on NEUROGENIN 2 downstream regulatory cascade, thus contributing to the achievement of proper neuronal differentiation timing. Finally, we identify the RNA-binding proteins HNRNPK and FUS as regulators of HOTAIRM1 biogenesis and metabolism. Our findings uncover a new regulatory layer underlying NEUROGENIN 2 transitory expression in neuronal differentiation and reveal a previously unidentified function for the neuronal-induced long noncoding RNA HOTAIRM1.

SRSF3: Newly discovered functions and roles in human health and diseases

The serine/arginine rich proteins (SR proteins) are members of a family of RNA binding proteins involved in regulating various features of RNA metabolism, including pre-mRNA constitutive and alternative splicing. In humans, a total of 12 SR splicing factors (SRSFs) namely SRSF1-SRSF12 have been reported. SRSF3, the smallest member of the SR family and the focus of this review, regulates critical steps in mRNA metabolism and has been shown to have mRNA-independent functions as well. Recent studies on SRSF3 have uncovered its role in a wide array of complex biological processes. We have also reviewed the involvement of SRSF3 in disease conditions like cancer, ageing, neurological and cardiac disorders. Finally, we have discussed in detail the autoregulation of SRSF3 and its implications in cancer and commented on the potential of SRSF3 as a therapeutic target, especially in the context of cancer.

Proteasome inhibitor-induced modulation reveals the spliceosome as a specific therapeutic vulnerability in multiple myeloma

Enhancing the efficacy of proteasome inhibitors (PI) is a central goal in myeloma therapy. We proposed that signaling-level responses after PI may reveal new mechanisms of action that can be therapeutically exploited. Unbiased phosphoproteomics after treatment with the PI carfilzomib surprisingly demonstrates the most prominent phosphorylation changes on splicing related proteins. Spliceosome modulation is invisible to RNA or protein abundance alone. Transcriptome analysis after PI demonstrates broad-scale intron retention, suggestive of spliceosome interference, as well as specific alternative splicing of protein homeostasis machinery components. These findings lead us to evaluate direct spliceosome inhibition in myeloma, which synergizes with carfilzomib and shows potent anti-tumor activity. Functional genomics and exome sequencing further support the spliceosome as a specific vulnerability in myeloma. Our results propose splicing interference as an unrecognized modality of PI mechanism, reveal additional modes of spliceosome modulation, and suggest spliceosome targeting as a promising therapeutic strategy in myeloma.

Aberrant expression and regulatory network of splicing factor-SRSF3 in tumors

Alternative splicing facilitates the splicing of precursor RNA into different isoforms. Alternatively spliced transcripts often exhibit antagonistic functions or differential temporal or spatial expression patterns. There is increasing evidence that alternative splicing, especially by the serine-arginine rich (SR) protein family, leads to abnormal expression patterns and is closely related to the development of cancer. SRSF3, also known as SRp20, is a splicing factor. Through alternative splicing, it plays important roles in regulating various biological functions, such as cell cycle, cell proliferation, migration and invasion, under pathological and physiological conditions. Deregulation of SRSF3 is an essential feature of cancers. SRSF3 is also considered a candidate therapeutic target. Therefore, the involvement of abnormal splicing in tumorigenesis and the regulation of splicing factors deserve further analysis and discussion. Here, we summarize the function of SRSF3-regulated alternative transcripts in cancer cell biology at different stages of tumor development and the regulation of SRSF3 in tumorigenesis.

Middle-Down Proteomics Reveals Dense Sites of Methylation and Phosphorylation in Arginine-Rich RNA-Binding Proteins

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) within arginine (Arg)-rich RNA-binding proteins, such as phosphorylation and methylation, regulate multiple steps in RNA metabolism. However, the identification of PTMs within Arg-rich domains with complete trypsin digestion is extremely challenging due to the high density of Arg residues within these proteins. Here, we report a middle-down proteomic approach coupled with electron-transfer dissociation (ETD) mass spectrometry to map previously unknown sites of phosphorylation and methylation within the Arg-rich domains of U1-70K and structurally similar RNA-binding proteins from nuclear extracts of human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293T cells. Notably, the Arg-rich domains in RNA-binding proteins are densely modified by methylation and phosphorylation compared with the remainder of the proteome, with methylation and phosphorylation favoring RSRS motifs. Although they favor a common motif, analysis of combinatorial PTMs within RSRS motifs indicates that phosphorylation and methylation do not often co-occur, suggesting that they may functionally oppose one another. Furthermore, we show that phosphorylation may modify interactions between Arg-rich proteins, as serine-arginine splicing factor 2 (SRSF2) has a stronger association with U1-70K and LUC7L3 upon dephosphorylation. Collectively, these findings suggest that the level of PTMs within Arg-rich domains may be among the highest in the proteome and a possible unexplored regulator of RNA-binding protein interactions.