Specific interactions with TBP and TFIIB in vitro suggest that 14-3-3 proteins may participate in the regulation of transcription when part of a DNA binding complex

Calmodulin-Domain Protein Kinase PiCDPK1 Interacts with the 14-3-3-like Protein NtGF14 to Modulate Pollen Tube Growth

Calcium-mediated signaling pathways are known to play important roles in the polar growth of pollen tubes. The calcium-dependent protein kinase, PiCDPK1, has been shown to be involved in regulating this process through interaction with a guanine dissociation inhibitor, PiRhoGDI1. To more fully understand the role of PiCDPK1 in pollen tube extension, we designed a pull-down study to identify additional substrates of this kinase. These experiments identified 123 putative interactors. Two of the identified proteins were predicted to directly interact with PiCDPK1, and this possibility was investigated in planta. The first, NtGF14, a 14-3-3-like protein, did not produce a noticeable phenotype when overexpressed in pollen alone but partially rescued the spherical tube phenotype caused by PiCDPK1 over-expression when co-over-expressed with the kinase. The second, NtREN1, a GTPase activating protein (GAP), severely inhibited pollen tube germination when over-expressed, and its co-over-expression with PiCDPK1 did not substantially affect this phenotype. These results suggest a novel in vivo interaction between NtGF14 and PiCDPK1 but do not support the direct interaction between PiCDPK1 and NtREN1. We demonstrate the utility of the methodology used to identify potential protein interactions while confirming the necessity of additional studies to confirm their validity. Finally, additional support was found for intersection between PiCDPK1 and RopGTPase pathways to control polar growth at the pollen tube tip.

The role of 14-3-3 proteins in cell signalling pathways and virus infection

14-3-3 proteins are highly conserved in species ranging from yeast to mammals and regulate numerous signalling pathways via direct interactions with proteins carrying phosphorylated 14-3-3-binding motifs. Recent studies have shown that 14-3-3 proteins can also play a role in viral infections. This review summarizes the biological functions of 14-3-3 proteins in protein trafficking, cell-cycle control, apoptosis, autophagy and other cell signal transduction pathways, as well as the associated mechanisms. Recent findings regarding the role of 14-3-3 proteins in viral infection and innate immunity are also reviewed.

Crosstalk between 14-3-3θ and AF4 enhances MLL-AF4 activity and promotes leukemia cell proliferation

PURPOSE

The t(4;11)(q21;q23) translocation characterizes a form of acute lymphoblastic leukemia with a poor prognosis. It results in a fusion gene encoding a chimeric transcription factor, MLL-AF4, that deregulates gene expression through a variety of still controversial mechanisms. To provide new insights into these mechanisms, we examined the interaction between AF4, the most common MLL fusion partner, and the scaffold protein 14-3-3θ, in the context of t(4;11)-positive leukemia.

METHODS

Protein-protein interactions were analyzed using immunoprecipitation and in vitro binding assays, and by fluorescence microscopy in t(4;11)-positive RS4;11 and MV4-11 leukemia cells and in HEK293 cells. Protein and mRNA expression levels were determined by Western blotting and RT-qPCR, respectively. A 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine assay and an annexin V/propidium iodide assay were used to assess proliferation and apoptosis rates, respectively, in t(4;11)-positive and control cells. Chromatin immunoprecipitation was performed to assess binding of 14-3-3θ and AF4 to a specific promoter element.

RESULTS

We found that AF4 and 14-3-3θ are nuclear interactors, that 14-3-3θ binds Ser⁵⁸⁸ of AF4 and that 14-3-3θ forms a complex with MLL-AF4. In addition, we found that in t(4;11)-positive cells, 14-3-3θ knockdown decreased the expression of MLL-AF4 target genes, induced apoptosis and hampered cell proliferation. Moreover, we found that 14-3-3θ knockdown impaired the recruitment of AF4, but not of MLL-AF4, to target chromatin. Overall, our data indicate that the activity of the chimeric transcription factor MLL-AF4 depends on the cellular availability of 14-3-3θ, which triggers the transactivating function and subsequent degradation of AF4.

CONCLUSIONS

From our data we conclude that the scaffold protein 14-3-3θ enhances the aberrant activity of the chimeric transcription factor MLL-AF4 and, therefore, represents a new player in the molecular pathogenesis of t(4;11)-positive leukemia and a new promising therapeutic target.

The Tudor Staphylococcal Nuclease Protein of Entamoeba histolytica Participates in Transcription Regulation and Stress Response

Entamoeba histolytica is the protozoa parasite responsible of human amoebiasis, disease that causes from 40,000 to 100,000 deaths annually worldwide. However, few are known about the expression regulation of molecules involved in its pathogenicity. Transcription of some virulence-related genes is positively controlled by the cis-regulatory element named URE1. Previously we identified the transcription factor that binds to URE1, which displayed a nuclear and cytoplasmic localization. This protein belongs to the Tudor Staphyococcal nuclease (TSN) family, which in other systems participates in virtually all pathways of gene expression, suggesting that this amoebic transcription factor (EhTSN; former EhURE1BP) could also play multiple functions in E. histolytica. The aim of this study was to identify the possible cellular events where EhTSN is involved. Here, we found that EhTSN in nucleus is located in euchromatin and close to, but not into, heterochromatin. We also showed the association of EhTSN with proteins involved in transcription and that the knockdown of EhTSN provokes a diminishing in the mRNA level of the EhRabB gene, which in its promoter region contains the URE1 motif, confirming that EhTSN participates in transcription regulation. In cytoplasm, this protein was found linked to the membrane of small vesicles and to plasma membrane. Through pull-down assays and mass spectrometry we identity thirty two candidate proteins to interact with EhTSN. These proteins participate in transcription, metabolism, signaling, and stress response, among other cellular processes. Interaction of EhTSN with some candidate proteins involved in metabolism, and signaling was validated by co-immunoprecipitation or co-localization. Finally we showed the co-localization of EhTSN and HSP70 in putative stress granules during heat shock and that the knockdown of EhTSN increases the cell death during heat shock treatment, reinforcing the hypothesis that EhTSN has a role during stress response. All data support the proposal that EhTSN is a multifunctional protein of E. histolytica.

Synthetic strategies for plant signalling studies: molecular toolbox and orthogonal platforms

Plants deploy a wide array of signalling networks integrating environmental cues with growth, defence and developmental responses. The high level of complexity, redundancy and connection between several pathways hampers a comprehensive understanding of involved functional and regulatory mechanisms. The implementation of synthetic biology approaches is revolutionizing experimental biology in prokaryotes, yeasts and animal systems and can likewise contribute to a new era in plant biology. This review gives an overview on synthetic biology approaches for the development and implementation of synthetic molecular tools and techniques to interrogate, understand and control signalling events in plants, ranging from strategies for the targeted manipulation of plant genomes up to the spatiotemporally resolved control of gene expression using optogenetic approaches. We also describe strategies based on the partial reconstruction of signalling pathways in orthogonal platforms, like yeast, animal and in vitro systems. This allows a targeted analysis of individual signalling hubs devoid of interconnectivity with endogenous interacting components. Implementation of the interdisciplinary synthetic biology tools and strategies is not exempt of challenges and hardships but simultaneously most rewarding in terms of the advances in basic and applied research. As witnessed in other areas, these original theoretical-experimental avenues will lead to a breakthrough in the ability to study and comprehend plant signalling networks.

Epigenetic activation of Sox2 gene in the developing vertebrate neural plate

The in vivo requirement of the histone demethylase JmjD2A, together with the kinase MSK1, results in a series of epigenetic events necessary for early activation of Sox2 and subsequent neural fate commitment in vertebrates.

One of the earliest manifestations of neural induction is onset of expression of the neural marker Sox2, mediated by the activation of the enhancers N1 and N2. By using loss and gain of function, we find that Sox2 expression requires the activity of JmjD2A and the Msk1 kinase, which can respectively demethylate the repressive H3K9me3 mark and phosphorylate the activating H3S10 (H3S10ph) mark. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation reveals that the adaptor protein 14-3-3, known to bind to H3S10ph, interacts with JMJD2A and may be involved in its recruitment to regulatory regions of the Sox2 gene. Chromatin immunoprecipitation reveals dynamic binding of JMJD2A to the Sox2 promoter and N-1 enhancer at the time of neural plate induction. Finally, we show a clear temporal antagonism on the occupancy of H3K9me3 and H3S10ph modifications at the promoter of the Sox2 locus before and after the neural plate induction. Taken together, our results propose a series of epigenetic events necessary for the early activation of the Sox2 gene in neural progenitor cells.

Regulation of the Regulators: Post-Translational Modifications, Subcellular, and Spatiotemporal Distribution of Plant 14-3-3 Proteins

14-3-3 proteins bind to and modulate the activity of phosphorylated proteins that regulate a variety of metabolic processes in eukaryotes. Multiple 14-3-3 isoforms are expressed in most organisms and display redundancy in both sequence and function. Plants contain the largest number of 14-3-3 isoforms. For example, Arabidopsis thaliana contains thirteen 14-3-3 genes, each of which is expressed. Interest in the plant 14-3-3 field has swelled over the past decade, largely due to the vast number of possibilities for 14-3-3 metabolic regulation. As the field progresses, it is essential to understand these proteins' activities at both the spatiotemporal and subcellular levels. This review summarizes current knowledge of 14-3-3 proteins in plants, including 14-3-3 interactions, regulatory functions, isoform specificity, and post-translational modifications. We begin with a historical overview and structural analysis of 14-3-3 proteins, which describes the basic principles of 14-3-3 function, and then discuss interactions and regulatory effects of plant 14-3-3 proteins in specific tissues and subcellular compartments. We conclude with a summary of 14-3-3 phosphorylation and current knowledge of the functional effects of this modification in plants.

Phosphomimetic mutation of a conserved serine residue in Arabidopsis thaliana 14-3-3ω suggests a regulatory role of phosphorylation in dimerization and target interactions

14-3-3s are evolutionarily conserved eukaryotic regulatory proteins that are involved in diverse biological processes. The common mode of action for the 14-3-3 proteins is through the binding of phosphorylated target proteins. In many species, multiple 14-3-3 isoforms exist and these different isoforms can exhibit distinct ranges of target interactions. The dimerization of 14-3-3s is central to their function. 14-3-3 isoforms can form different combinations of homo- and heterodimers, which contribute to the broad functional diversity of the family. In this study, we showed that phosphomimetic mutation of a conserved serine residue in the dimerization interface of 14-3-3 isoforms, Ser-62, not only affects the ability of Arabidopsis 14-3-3ω to form homodimers, but alters the range of 14-3-3 family members with which it can form heterodimers. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the phosphorylation status of Ser-62 can regulate the binding of 14-3-3ω to target proteins, suggesting that Ser-62 might be a conserved key element to modulate target binding in both plants and animals.

Rice GROWTH UNDER DROUGHT KINASE is required for drought tolerance and grain yield under normal and drought stress conditions

Rice (Oryza sativa) is the primary food source for more than one-half of the world's population. Because rice cultivation is dependent on water availability, drought during flowering severely affects grain yield. Here, we show that the function of a drought-inducible receptor-like cytoplasmic kinase, named GROWTH UNDER DROUGHT KINASE (GUDK), is required for grain yield under drought and well-watered conditions. Loss-of-function gudk mutant lines exhibit sensitivity to salinity, osmotic stress, and abscisic acid treatment at the seedling stage, and a reduction in photosynthesis and plant biomass under controlled drought stress at the vegetative stage. The gudk mutants interestingly showed a significant reduction in grain yield, both under normal well-watered conditions and under drought stress at the reproductive stage. Phosphoproteome profiling of the mutant followed by in vitro assays identified the transcription factor APETALA2/ETHYLENE RESPONSE FACTOR OsAP37 as a phosphorylation target of GUDK. The involvement of OsAP37 in regulating grain yield under drought through activation of several stress genes was previously shown. Our transactivation assays confirmed that GUDK is required for activation of stress genes by OsAP37. We propose that GUDK mediates drought stress signaling through phosphorylation and activation of OsAP37, resulting in transcriptional activation of stress-regulated genes, which impart tolerance and improve yield under drought. Our study reveals insights around drought stress signaling mediated by receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases, and also identifies a primary regulator of grain yield in rice that offers the opportunity to improve and stabilize rice grain yield under normal and drought stress conditions.

Sensing core histone phosphorylation - a matter of perfect timing

Systematic analysis of histone modifications has revealed a plethora of posttranslational modifications that mediate changes in chromatin structure and gene expression. Histone phosphorylation is a transient histone modification that becomes induced by extracellular signals, DNA damage or entry into mitosis. Importantly, phosphorylation of histone proteins does lead not only to the binding of specific reader proteins but also to changes in the affinity for readers or writers of other histone modifications. This induces a cross-talk between different chromatin modifications that allows the spatio-temporal control of chromatin-associated events. In this review we will summarize the progress in our current knowledge of factors sensing reversible histone phosphorylation in different biological scenarios. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Molecular mechanisms of histone modification function.

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Signal induced histone phosphorylation is associated with local chromatin opening and transcriptional activation.

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Histone phosphorylation is also linked with chromatin condensation during mitosis.

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Histone phosphorylation marks are important for regulation of the DNA damage response.

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Specific reader proteins recognize histone phosphorylation marks alone or in combination with other histone modifications.

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Histone phosphorylation affects the affinity of readers or writers of other histone modifications.

The yeast 14-3-3 proteins BMH1 and BMH2 differentially regulate rapamycin-mediated transcription

14-3-3 proteins are highly conserved and have been found in all eukaryotic organisms investigated. They are involved in many varied cellular processes, and interact with hundreds of other proteins. Among many other roles in cells, yeast 14-3-3 proteins have been implicated in rapamycin-mediated cell signalling. We determined the transcription profiles of bmh1 and bmh2 yeast after treatment with rapamycin. We found that, under these conditions, BMH1 and BMH2 are required for rapamycin-induced regulation of distinct, but overlapping sets of genes. Both Bmh1 and Bmh2 associate with the promoters of at least some of these genes. BMH2, but not BMH1, attenuates the repression of genes involved in some functions required for ribosome biogenesis. BMH2 also attenuates the activation of genes sensitive to nitrogen catabolite repression.

A proteomic perspective of inbuilt viral protein regulation: pUL46 tegument protein is targeted for degradation by ICP0 during herpes simplex virus type 1 infection

Much like the host cells they infect, viruses must also regulate their life cycles. Herpes simples virus type 1 (HSV-1), a prominent human pathogen, uses a promoter-rich genome in conjunction with multiple viral trans-activating factors. Following entry into host cells, the virion-associated outer tegument proteins pUL46 and pUL47 act to increase expression of viral immediate-early (α) genes, thereby helping initiate the infection life cycle. Because pUL46 has gone largely unstudied, we employed a hybrid mass spectrometry-based approach to determine how pUL46 exerts its functions during early stages of infection. For a spatio-temporal characterization of pUL46, time-lapse microscopy was performed in live cells to define its dynamic localization from 2 to 24 h postinfection. Next, pUL46-containing protein complexes were immunoaffinity purified during infection of human fibroblasts and analyzed by mass spectrometry to investigate virus-virus and virus-host interactions, as well as post-translational modifications. We demonstrated that pUL46 is heavily phosphorylated in at least 23 sites. One phosphorylation site matched the consensus 14-3-3 phospho-binding motif, consistent with our identification of 14-3-3 proteins and host and viral kinases as specific pUL46 interactions. Moreover, we determined that pUL46 specifically interacts with the viral E3 ubiquitin ligase ICP0. We demonstrated that pUL46 is partially degraded in a proteasome-mediated manner during infection, and that the catalytic activity of ICP0 is responsible for this degradation. This is the first evidence of a viral protein being targeted for degradation by another viral protein during HSV-1 infection. Together, these data indicate that pUL46 levels are tightly controlled and important for the temporal regulation of viral gene expression throughout the virus life cycle. The concept of a structural virion protein, pUL46, performing nonstructural roles is likely to reflect a theme common to many viruses, and a better understanding of these functions will be important for developing therapeutics.

14-3-3 proteins SGF14c and SGF14l play critical roles during soybean nodulation

The soybean (Glycine max) genome contains 18 members of the 14-3-3 protein family, but little is known about their association with specific phenotypes. Here, we report that the Glyma0529080 Soybean G-box Factor 14-3-3c (SGF14c) and Glyma08g12220 (SGF14l) genes, encoding 14-3-3 proteins, appear to play essential roles in soybean nodulation. Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western-immunoblot analyses showed that SGF14c mRNA and protein levels were specifically increased in abundance in nodulated soybean roots 10, 12, 16, and 20 d after inoculation with Bradyrhizobium japonicum. To investigate the role of SGF14c during soybean nodulation, RNA interference was employed to silence SGF14c expression in soybean roots using Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated root transformation. Due to the paleopolyploid nature of soybean, designing a specific RNA interference sequence that exclusively targeted SGF14c was not possible. Therefore, two highly similar paralogs (SGF14c and SGF14l) that have been shown to function as dimers were silenced. Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses showed that mRNA and protein levels were significantly reduced in the SGF14c/SGF14l-silenced roots, and these roots exhibited reduced numbers of mature nodules. In addition, SGF14c/SGF14l-silenced roots contained large numbers of arrested nodule primordia following B. japonicum inoculation. Transmission electron microscopy further revealed that the host cytoplasm and membranes, except the symbiosome membrane, were severely degraded in the failed nodules. Altogether, transcriptomic, proteomic, and cytological data suggest a critical role of one or both of these 14-3-3 proteins in early development stages of soybean nodules.

Identification of testis 14-3-3 binding proteins by tandem affinity purification

The 14-3-3 family of proteins interacts with various cellular phosphoproteins and regulates multiple cell signaling cascades. Identification of 14-3-3 interactors is important to define 14-3-3 functions in various biological pathways. The binding partners of protein 14-3-3 in testis are not known. The main goal of this study was to identify the 14-3-3 interactome in testis to determine the 14-3-3 regulated cellular processes in testis. We used transgenic mice expressing tandem affinity tagged 14-3-3ζ (TAP-14-3-3ζ) driven by the ubiquitin promoter to isolate 14-3-3 binding proteins. The 14-3-3 complexes in testis were isolated using a two-step tandem affinity purification (TAP) followed by identification with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total of 135 proteins were found to be associated with 14-3-3 in vivo in testis. Comparison of the testis 14-3-3 proteome with known 14-3-3 binding proteins showed that 71 of the proteins identified in this study are novel 14-3-3 interactors. Eight of these novel 14-3-3 interacting proteins are predominantly expressed in testis. The 14-3-3 interactors predominant in testis are: protein phosphatase1γ2 (PP1γ2), spermatogenesis associated 18 (SPATA18), phosphoglycerate kinase-2 (PGK2), testis specific gene A-2 (TSGA-2), dead box polypeptide 4 (DDX4), piwi homolog 1, protein kinase NYD-SP25 and EAN57. The fact that some of these proteins are indispensable for spermatogenesis suggests that their binding to 14-3-3 may be important for their function in germ cell division and maturation. These findings are discussed in context of the putative functions of 14-3-3 in spermatogenesis.

Differential proteomic analysis of temperature-induced autolysis in mycelium of Pleurotus tuber-regium

Autolysis is an important physiological process found in fungal cultivation. However, there is hitherto no report on the autolysis of Pleurotus tuber-regium. We have investigated the enzymes secreted by temperature-induced (40°C as treatment versus 10°C as control) autolysis of the mycelium of P. tuber-regium grown in submerged cultivation. A comparison between the intracellular proteins (inside the mycelium) and the extracellular proteins (in the culture medium) of the treatment and control by proteomic analysis involving 2D PAGE and MALDI-TOF-MS was made. Twenty-two up-regulated protein spots were detected and eight proteins were identified. They included proteasome which participates in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway; β-1,3-glucanosyltransferase and tubulin which are involved in the renewal and repair of cell wall; protease and endoglucanase which promote the natural degradation of cell wall and cytoplasm; 14-3-3 protein which takes part in cell signal transduction; and two putative proteins presumably relate to the autolysis process. These identified proteins suggest partially the metabolic processes of the autolysis in the P. tuber-regium mycelium.

Activation of the transcription of Gal4-regulated genes by Physarum 14-3-3 in yeast is related to dimer-binding motif-2 and three phosphorylation sites

The roles of 14-3-3 proteins in the lower eukaryotes are still elusive. We isolated a cDNA encoding the 14-3-3 protein (P14-3-3) from the lower eukaryote Physarum polycephalum. This P14-3-3 gene was then inserted downstream of the Gal4 DNA-binding domain in the yeast expression vector pGBKT7. The recombinant vector was transformed into auxotrophic AH109 and Y187 yeast cells to detect the activation of Gal4-regulated gene expression mediated by P14-3-3. The results showed that three reporter genes (ADE2, HIS3, and lacZ) could be normally expressed, indicating that the transcriptional activation function of P14-3-3 was retained. We subsequently used a truncated P14-3-3 peptides and mutant peptides to study the activation of the Gal4-regulated genes ADE2, HIS3, and lacZ. We found that deletion of the N-terminal second dimer-binding motif (DBM2) sequence or the C-terminal coil sequence led to the loss of P14-3-3's transcriptional activation function. Specifically, any mutation at the potential phosphorylation sites (Ser62 and Ser67) on DBM2 or at the C-terminal potential phosphorylation site (235ThrSer236) led to the loss of the transcriptional activation function of P14-3-3. Taken together, these observations suggest that the transcriptional activation function of P14-3-3 in lower eukaryotes is related to DBM2 and the C-terminal coil structures.

14-3-3 and FHA domains mediate phosphoprotein interactions

Many aspects of plant growth and development require specific protein interactions to carry out biochemical and cellular functions. Several proteins mediate these interactions, two of which specifically recognize phosphoproteins: 14-3-3 proteins and proteins with FHA domains. These are the only phosphobinding domains identified in plants. Both domains are present in animals and plants, and are used by plant proteins to regulate metabolic, developmental, and signaling pathways. 14-3-3s regulate sugar metabolism, proton gradients, and control transcription factor localization. FHA domains are modular domains often found in multidomain proteins that are involved in signal transduction and plant development.

14-3-3 isoforms participate in red light signaling and photoperiodic flowering

Members of the 14-3-3 family of proteins participate in signal transduction by modulating flux through various pathways. Potential subfunctionalization within this family has produced a suite of related proteins with diverse client interactions and discrete localization. The associated study assesses the biological roles of two specific 14-3-3 isoforms, using genetic, biochemical and physiological assays to ascertain potential nodes of interaction. Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion mutants representing the nu and mu isoforms exhibited a short, yet clear delay in flowering time on long days. Tests of hypocotyl growth inhibition under narrow bandwidth light indicated a hyposensitivity to red light, while responses to blue and far-red light were normal. These physiological tests suggest a mechanistic link between 14-3-3 proteins, red light sensing, and the pathways that control photoperiodic flowering. The precise entry point into the pathway was assessed using yeast two hybrid assays targeted against specific proteins active in the circadian oscillator, light transduction and photoperiodic flowering. Yeast two hybrid interaction was observed with CONSTANS (CO), and then confirmed with coimmunoprecipitation. Functional interaction with phyB leading to defects in flowering time and direct interaction with CONSTANS circumstantially places these specific 14-3-3 isoforms into the pathway that regulates the transition between vegetative and floral development.

14-3-3 interaction with histone H3 involves a dual modification pattern of phosphoacetylation

Histone modifications occur in precise patterns and are proposed to signal the recruitment of effector molecules that profoundly impact chromatin structure, gene regulation, and cell cycle events. The linked modifications serine 10 phosphorylation and lysine 14 acetylation on histone H3 (H3S10phK14ac), modifications conserved from Saccharomyces cerevisiae to humans, are crucial for transcriptional activation of many genes. However, the mechanism of H3S10phK14ac involvement in these processes is unclear. To shed light on the role of this dual modification, we utilized H3 peptide affinity assays to identify H3S10phK14ac-interacting proteins. We found that the interaction of the known phospho-binding 14-3-3 proteins with H3 is dependent on the presence of both of these marks, not just phosphorylation alone. This is true of mammalian 14-3-3 proteins as well as the yeast homologues Bmh1 and Bmh2. The importance of acetylation in this interaction is also seen in vivo, where K14 acetylation is required for optimal Bmh1 recruitment to the GAL1 promoter during transcriptional activation.

The 14-3-3 Proteins mu and upsilon influence transition to flowering and early phytochrome response

14-3-3 proteins regulate a diverse set of biological responses but developmental phenotypes associated with 14-3-3 mutations have not been described in plants. Here, physiological and biochemical tests demonstrate interactions between 14-3-3s and the well-established mechanisms that govern light sensing and photoperiodic flowering control. Plants featuring homozygous disruption of 14-3-3 isoforms upsilon and mu display defects in light sensing and/or response. Mutant plants flower late and exhibit long hypocotyls under red light, with little effect under blue or far-red light. The long hypocotyl phenotype is consistent with a role for 14-3-3 upsilon and mu in phytochrome B signaling. Yeast two-hybrid and coimmunoprecipitation assays indicate that 14-3-3 upsilon and mu proteins physically interact with CONSTANS, a central regulator of the photoperiod pathway. Together, these data indicate a potential role for specific 14-3-3 isoforms in affecting photoperiodic flowering via interaction with CONSTANS, possibly as integrators of light signals sensed through the phytochrome system.

Intranuclear localization and isoform-dependent translocation of 14-3-3 proteins in human brain with infarction

Immunolocalization of 14-3-3 proteins in human brains with infarction was investigated using isoform-specific antibodies. Neurons around acute or subacute ischemic foci exhibited an enhanced immunoreactivity for 14-3-3 proteins either in the cytoplasm (especially for its sigma isoform) or in the nucleus (especially for its beta isoform), and sometimes in both. 14-3-3-like immunoreactivity was evaluated in each neuron, which enabled us to identify into three patterns: intense cytoplasmic staining with or without nuclear staining; a predominant nuclear staining with weak cytoplasmic staining; and an exclusive nuclear staining without cytoplamic staining. Quantification of 1500 neurons in relation to the severity of ischemia estimated by the relative distance from ischemic foci clarified that nuclear immunoreactivity for 14-3-3 proteins was more frequent in neurons near the ischemic core. Although the cytoplasm of astrocytes was similarly positive for the sigma and the epsilon isoform, their nuclei were only immunopositive for the gamma isoform. In the cerebral white matter with ischemia, axonal swelling and some nuclei of oligodendrocytes were positive for the zeta isoform. Isoform-specific translocation of 14-3-3 proteins into nuclei is a cellular reaction to ischemic stress that may be related to survival of neurons and their protection against cell death.

Gene suppression in a tolerant tomato-vascular pathogen interaction

A plant can respond to the threat of a pathogen through resistance defenses or through tolerance. Resistance has been widely studied in many host pathogen systems but little is known about genetic changes which underlie a tolerant interaction. A recently developed model system for a tolerant tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) interaction with a fungal wilt pathogen, Verticillium dahliae Kleb, is examined with respect to changes in gene expression and compared to a susceptible infection. The results indicate that genetic changes can be dramatically different and some genes that are strongly elevated in the susceptible interaction are actually down-regulated in tolerance. Similar levels of fungal DNA and an up-regulation of many pathogenesis related genes indicate that in both types of interaction the presence of fungus is clearly recognized by the plant but other changes correlate with the absence of symptoms in the tolerant interaction. For example, a gene encoding a known 14-3-3 regulatory protein and a number of genes normally affected by this protein are down-regulated. Furthermore, genes which may contribute to foliar necrosis and cell death in the susceptible interaction also appear to be suppressed in the tolerant interaction, raising the possibility that the wilt symptoms, chlorosis and necrosis which are observed in the susceptible interaction, are actually programmed to further limit the growth of the fungal pathogen, and protect the general tomato population.

TFIIB and the regulation of transcription by RNA polymerase II

Accurate transcription of a gene by RNA polymerase II requires the assembly of a group of general transcription factors at the promoter. The general transcription factor TFIIB plays a central role in preinitiation complex assembly, providing a bridge between promoter-bound TFIID and RNA polymerase II. TFIIB makes extensive contact with the core promoter via two independent DNA-recognition modules. In addition to interacting with other general transcription factors, TFIIB directly modulates the catalytic center of RNA polymerase II in the transcription complex. Moreover, TFIIB has been proposed as a target of transcriptional activator proteins that act to stimulate preinitiation complex assembly. In this review, we will discuss our current understanding of these activities of TFIIB.

Intranuclear immunolocalization of 14-3-3 protein isoforms in brains with spinocerebellar ataxia type 1

Immunolocalization of 14-3-3 protein isoforms, one of the interacters with ataxin 1, was investigated in spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA 1) brains using isoform-specific antibodies. Samples from the pons and from the cerebellum of four SCA1 cases and three controls were studied. The intensity of the immunoreactivity (IR) and its subcellular topography were analyzed. In control subjects, granular immunoreactivity for an epitope common to all known isoforms of 14-3-3 proteins (14-3-3 COM) found in the cytoplasm of some pontine and dentate nucleus neurons was weak. It was observed in some Purkinje cells, while its intensity varied. Many nuclei of those neurons and Purkinje cells of SCA1 were intensely immunopositive for 14-3-3 COM, while it was less in their cytoplasm. Expanded polyglutamine epitope was colocalized to 14-3-3 COM epitope in some pontine neurons, sometimes accumulated in intranuclear inclusion-like structures. This findings support previous reports that 14-3-3 proteins stabilize mutant ataxin 1 in nucleus and possibly lead to neurodegeneration. However, nuclear localization of 14-3-3 proteins in SCA1 brains was dependent on its isoforms, i.e. pontine neurons intensely positive for beta, Purkinje cells for tau and dentate nucleus neurons for both, while all of those neurons were consistently positive for zeta isoform, although sigma isoform tended to be located in the cytoplasm. Nuclear accumulation and isoform- and region-dependent subcellular localizations of 14-3-3 proteins may be related to SCA1 pathology, which exhibits marked regional variability.

Temporary expression of the TAF10 gene and its requirement for normal development of Arabidopsis thaliana

TAF10 is one of the TATA box-binding protein (TBP)-associated factors (TAFs) which constitute a TFIID with a TBP. Initially most TAFs were thought to be necessary for accurate transcription initiation from a broad group of core promoters. However, it was recently revealed that several TAFs are expressed in limited tissues during animal embryogenesis, and are indispensable for normal development of the tissues. They are called 'selective' TAFs. In plants, however, little is known as to these 'selective' TAFs and their function. Here we isolated the Arabidopsis thaliana TAF10 gene (atTAF10), which is a single gene closely related to the TAF10 genes of other organisms. atTAF10 was expressed transiently during the development of several organs such as lateral roots, rosette leaves and most floral organs. Such an expression pattern was clearly distinct from that of Arabidopsis Rpb1, which encodes a component of RNA polymerase II, suggesting that atTAF10 functions in not only general transcription but also the selective expression of a subset of genes. In a knockdown mutant of atTAF10, we observed several abnormal phenotypes involved in meristem activity and leaf development, suggesting that atTAF10 is concerned in pleiotropic, but selected morphological events in Arabidopsis. These results clearly demonstrate that TAF10 is a 'selective' TAF in plants, providing a new insight into the function of TAFs in plants.

14-3-3 mediates transcriptional regulation by modulating nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of tobacco DNA-binding protein phosphatase-1

Tobacco DBP1 is the founding member of a novel class of plant transcription factors featuring sequence-specific DNA binding and protein phosphatase activity. To understand the mechanisms underlying the function of this family of transcriptional regulators, we have identified the tobacco 14-3-3 isoform G as the first protein interacting with a DBP factor. 14-3-3 recognition involves the N-terminal region of DBP1, which also supports the DNA binding activity attributed to DBP1. The relevance of this interaction is reinforced by its conservation in Arabidopsis plants, where the closest relative of DBP1 in this species also interacts with a homologous 14-3-3 protein through its N-terminal region. Furthermore, we show that in planta 14-3-3 G is directly involved in regulating DBP1 function by promoting nuclear export and subsequent cytoplasmic retention of DBP1 under conditions that in turn alleviate DBP1-mediated repression of target gene expression.

The Arabidopsis SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE1 protein complex includes BRASSINOSTEROID-INSENSITIVE1

Arabidopsis thaliana SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE1 (SERK1) is a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK) involved in the acquisition of embryogenic competence and in male sporogenesis. To determine the composition of the SERK1 signaling complex in vivo, we generated plants expressing the SERK1 protein fused to cyan fluorescent protein under SERK1 promoter control. The membrane receptor complex was immunoprecipitated from seedlings, and the coimmunoprecipitating proteins were identified using liquid chromatography/matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight/mass spectrometry of the trypsin-released peptides. This approach identified two other LRR-RLKs, the BRASSINOSTEROID-INSENSITIVE1 (BRI1) receptor and its coreceptor, the SERK3 or BRI1-ASSOCIATED KINASE1 protein. In addition, KINASE-ASSOCIATED PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE, CDC48A, and 14-3-3nu were found. Finally, the MADS box transcription factor AGAMOUS-LIKE15 and an uncharacterized zinc finger protein, a member of the CONSTANS family, were identified as part of the SERK1 complex. Using blue native gel electrophoresis, we show that SERK1 and SERK3 are part of BRI1-containing multiple protein complexes with relative masses between 300 and 500 kD. The SERK1 mutant allele serk1-1 enhances the phenotype of the weak BRI1 allele bri1-119. Collectively, these results suggest that apart from SERK3, SERK1 is also involved in the brassinolide signaling pathway.

Exposed loop domains of complexed 14-3-3 proteins contribute to structural diversity and functional specificity

The 14-3-3 family of proteins functions through protein:phosphoprotein interactions, the nature of which has been elucidated using x-ray crystallography. However, some key structural features in nonconserved regions have yet to be fully resolved, leaving open questions regarding the functional selectivity of 14-3-3 family members for diverse clients. In an effort to study surface accessible structural features in 14-3-3 containing macromolecular complexes and to illuminate important structure/function variations among the 14-3-3 isoforms, we determined the epitopes for three unique monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) developed against the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) G-box DNA:protein complex. The epitopes mapped to different loops in a phylogenetically important subset of the 13 14-3-3 family members. All three epitopes were on a common exposed face of complexed 14-3-3s. Two of the mAbs recognized linear sequences within loops 5 and 6, while the third mAb recognized 14-3-3 residues surrounding the pivotal medial Gly in the divalent cation-binding domain of loop 8, together with distal residue(s) in the putative dynamic 10th helix that has yet to be determined by crystallography. Gly at this loop 8 position is unique to nonepsilon 14-3-3 isoforms of the plant kingdom, suggesting that this region constitutes a plant-specific key functional 14-3-3 feature and highlighting that the loop 8 region is functionally significant. Mutagenesis of the medial amino acid in the loop 8 domain changed the flexibility of the C terminus and altered client peptide-binding selectivity, demonstrating the functional significance of the surface accessible, evolutionarily distinct loop 8 domain.

AtSAP18, an orthologue of human SAP18, is involved in the regulation of salt stress and mediates transcriptional repression in Arabidopsis

In yeast and mammalian systems, it is well established that transcriptional down-regulation by DNA-binding repressors involves core histone deacetylation, mediated by their interaction within a complex containing histone deacetylase (e.g. HDA1), as well as various other proteins (e.g. SIN3, SAP18, SAP30, and RbAp46). Here we identify that a Arabidopsis thaliana gene related in sequence to SAP18, designated AtSAP18, functions in transcription regulation in plants subjected to salt stress. The AtSAP18 loss- of-function mutant is more sensitive to NaCl, and is impaired in chlorophyll synthesis as compared to the wild-type. Using GST pull-down, two-hybrid, and transient transcription assays, we have characterized SAP18 and HDA1 orthologues and provide evidence that SAP18 and HDA1 function as transcriptional repressors. We further demonstrate that they associate with Ethylene-Responsive Element binding Factors (ERFs) to create a hormone-sensitive multimeric repressor complex under conditions of environmental stress. Our results indicate that AtSAP18 functions to link the HDA complex to transcriptional repressors that are bound to chromatin in a sequence-specific manner, thereby providing the specificity of signal transduction accompanying transcriptional repression under stress conditions.

AtSAP18, an orthologue of human SAP18, is involved in the regulation of salt stress and mediates transcriptional repression in Arabidopsis

In yeast and mammalian systems, it is well established that transcriptional down-regulation by DNA-binding repressors involves core histone deacetylation, mediated by their interaction within a complex containing histone deacetylase (e.g. HDA1), as well as various other proteins (e.g. SIN3, SAP18, SAP30, and RbAp46). Here we identify that a Arabidopsis thaliana gene related in sequence to SAP18, designated AtSAP18, functions in transcription regulation in plants subjected to salt stress. The AtSAP18 loss- of-function mutant is more sensitive to NaCl, and is impaired in chlorophyll synthesis as compared to the wild-type. Using GST pull-down, two-hybrid, and transient transcription assays, we have characterized SAP18 and HDA1 orthologues and provide evidence that SAP18 and HDA1 function as transcriptional repressors. We further demonstrate that they associate with Ethylene-Responsive Element binding Factors (ERFs) to create a hormone-sensitive multimeric repressor complex under conditions of environmental stress. Our results indicate that AtSAP18 functions to link the HDA complex to transcriptional repressors that are bound to chromatin in a sequence-specific manner, thereby providing the specificity of signal transduction accompanying transcriptional repression under stress conditions.

The Giardia duodenalis 14-3-3 protein is post-translationally modified by phosphorylation and polyglycylation of the C-terminal tail

The flagellated protozoan Giardia duodenalis (syn. lamblia or intestinalis) has been chosen as a model parasite to further investigate the multifunctional 14-3-3s, a family of highly conserved eukaryotic proteins involved in many cellular processes, such as cell cycle, differentiation, apoptosis, and signal transduction pathways. We confirmed the presence of a single 14-3-3 homolog gene (g14-3-3) by an in silico screening of the complete genome of Giardia, and we demonstrated its constitutive transcription throughout the life stages of the parasite. We cloned and expressed the g14-3-3 in bacteria, and by protein-protein interaction assays we demonstrated that it is a functional 14-3-3. Using an anti-peptide antibody raised against a unique 18-amino acid sequence at the N terminus, we observed variations both in the intracellular localization and in the molecular size of the native g14-3-3 during the conversion of Giardia from trophozoites to the cyst stage. An affinity chromatography, based on the 14-3-3 binding to the polypeptide difopein, was set to purify the native g14-3-3. By matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectroscopy analysis, we showed that polyglycylation, an unusual post-translational modification described only for tubulin, occurred at the extreme C terminus of the native g14-3-3 on Glu246, Glu247, or both and that the Thr214, located in the loop between helices 8 and 9, is phosphorylated. We propose that the addition of the polyglycine chain can promote the binding of g14-3-3 to alternative ligands and that the differential rate of polyglycylation/deglycylation during the encystation process can act as a novel mechanism to regulate the intracellular localization of g14-3-3.

Promotion of importin alpha-mediated nuclear import by the phosphorylation-dependent binding of cargo protein to 14-3-3

14-3-3 proteins are phosphoserine/threonine-binding proteins that play important roles in many regulatory processes, including intracellular protein targeting. 14-3-3 proteins can anchor target proteins in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus or can mediate their nuclear export. So far, no role for 14-3-3 in mediating nuclear import has been described. There is also mounting evidence that nuclear import is regulated by the phosphorylation of cargo proteins, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Myopodin is a dual-compartment, actin-bundling protein that functions as a tumor suppressor in human bladder cancer. In muscle cells, myopodin redistributes between the nucleus and the cytoplasm in a differentiation-dependent and stress-induced fashion. We show that importin alpha binding and the subsequent nuclear import of myopodin are regulated by the serine/threonine phosphorylation-dependent binding of myopodin to 14-3-3. These results establish a novel paradigm for the promotion of nuclear import by 14-3-3 binding. They provide a molecular explanation for the phosphorylation-dependent nuclear import of nuclear localization signal-containing cargo proteins.

Isoform-specific subcellular localization among 14-3-3 proteins in Arabidopsis seems to be driven by client interactions

In most higher eukaryotes, the predominantly phosphoprotein-binding 14-3-3 proteins are the products of a multigene family, with many organisms having 10 or more family members. However, current models for 14-3-3/phosphopeptide interactions suggest that there is little specificity among 14-3-3s for diverse phosphopeptide clients. Therefore, the existence of sequence diversity among 14-3-3s within a single organism begs questions regarding the in vivo specificities of the interactions between the various 14-3-3s and their clients. Chief among those questions is, Do the different 14-3-3 isoforms interact with different clients within the same cell? Although the members of the Arabidopsis 14-3-3 family of proteins typically contain highly conserved regions of sequence, they also display distinctive variability with deep evolutionary roots. In the current study, a survey of several Arabidopsis 14-3-3/GFP fusions revealed that 14-3-3s demonstrate distinct and differential patterns of subcellular distribution, by using trichomes and stomate guard cells as in vivo experimental cellular contexts. The effects of client interaction on 14-3-3 localization were further analyzed by disrupting the partnering with peptide and chemical agents. Results indicate that 14-3-3 localization is both isoform specific and highly dependent upon interaction with cellular clients.

Abundant Expression in Vascular Tissue of Plant TAF10, an Orthologous Gene for TATA Box-binding Protein-associated Factor 10, in Flaveria trinervia and Abnormal Morphology of Arabidopsis thaliana Transformants on its Overexpression

TAF10 is one of the TATA box-binding protein-associated factors (TAFs), which constitute the TFIID complex. We isolated a plant TAF10 ortholog from a Flaveria trinervia cDNA library, and named it ftTAF10. The ftTAF10 polypeptide contains a histone-fold motif, which is highly conserved among the TAF10s of other organisms. A transiently expressed green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein was translocated into the nuclei of onion epidermal cells, suggesting that the ftTAF10 functions in nuclei. The transcript level was higher in stems and roots than in leaves, and in situ hybridization of F. trinervia seedlings revealed that the ftTAF10 transcript is accumulated abundantly in vascular tissues of hypocotyls, in the central cylinder of roots, and slightly in bundle sheath cells of leaves. Overexpression of ftTAF10 in Arabidopsis under the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter caused two kinds of abnormal morphology, limitation of the indeterminate inflorescence and production of deformed leaves. These results indicate the possibility that ftTAF10 is a plant 'selective TAF' involved in the expression of a subset of vascular abundant genes, and that its appropriate gene expression is necessary for normal development.

Dynamic interactions between 14-3-3 proteins and phosphoproteins regulate diverse cellular processes

14-3-3 proteins exert an extraordinarily widespread influence on cellular processes in all eukaryotes. They operate by binding to specific phosphorylated sites on diverse target proteins, thereby forcing conformational changes or influencing interactions between their targets and other molecules. In these ways, 14-3-3s 'finish the job' when phosphorylation alone lacks the power to drive changes in the activities of intracellular proteins. By interacting dynamically with phosphorylated proteins, 14-3-3s often trigger events that promote cell survival--in situations from preventing metabolic imbalances caused by sudden darkness in leaves to mammalian cell-survival responses to growth factors. Recent work linking specific 14-3-3 isoforms to genetic disorders and cancers, and the cellular effects of 14-3-3 agonists and antagonists, indicate that the cellular complement of 14-3-3 proteins may integrate the specificity and strength of signalling through to different cellular responses.

Plant class B HSFs inhibit transcription and exhibit affinity for TFIIB and TBP

Plant heat shock transcription factors (HSFs) are capable of transcriptional activation (class A HSFs) or both, activation and repression (class B HSFs). However, the details of mechanism still remain unclear. It is likely, that the regulation occurs through interactions of HSFs with general transcription factors (GTFs), as has been described for numerous other transcription factors. Here, we show that class A HSFs may activate transcription through direct contacts with TATA-binding protein (TBP). Class A HSFs can also interact weakly with TFIIB. Conversely, class B HSFs inhibit promoter activity through an active mechanism of repression that involves the C-terminal regulatory region (CTR) of class B HSFs. Deletion analysis revealed two sites in the CTR of soybean GmHSFB1 potentially involved in protein-protein interactions with GTFs: one is the repressor domain (RD) located in the N-terminal half of the CTR, and the other is a TFIIB binding domain (BD) that shows affinity for TFIIB and is located C-terminally from the RD. A Gal4 DNA binding domain-RD fusion repressed activity of LexA-activators, while Gal4-BD proteins synergistically activated strong and weak transcriptional activators. In vitro binding studies were consistent with this pattern of activity since the BD region alone interacted strongly with TFIIB, and the presence of RD had an inhibitory effect on TFIIB binding and transcriptional activation.

Nuclear localization and interaction of RolB with plant 14-3-3 proteins correlates with induction of adventitious roots by the oncogene rolB

The rooting-locus gene B (rolB) on the T-DNA of the root-inducing (Ri) plasmid in Agrobacterium rhizogenes is responsible for the induction of transformed adventitious roots, although the root induction mechanism is unknown. We report here that the RolB protein of pRi1724 (1724RolB) is associated with Nicotianatabacum14-3-3-like protein omegaII (Nt14-3-3 omegaII) in tobacco bright yellow (BY)-2 cells. Nt14-3-3 omegaII directly interacts with 1724RolB protein. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-fused 1724RolB is localized to the nucleus. GFP-fused mutant 1724RolB proteins having a deletion or amino acid substitution are unable to interact with Nt14-3-3 omegaII and also show impaired nuclear localization. Moreover, these 1724RolB mutants show decreased capacity for adventitious root induction. These results suggest that adventitious root induction by 1724RolB protein correlates with its interaction with Nt14-3-3 omegaII and the nuclear localization of 1724RolB protein.

14-3-3 sigma positively regulates p53 and suppresses tumor growth

The 14-3-3 sigma (sigma) protein, a negative regulator of the cell cycle, is a human mammary epithelium-specific marker that is downregulated in transformed mammary carcinoma cells. It has also been identified as a p53-inducible gene product involved in cell cycle checkpoint control after DNA damage. Although 14-3-3 sigma is linked to p53-regulated cell cycle checkpoint control, detailed mechanisms of how cell cycle regulation occurs remain unclear. Decreased expression of 14-3-3 sigma was recently reported in several types of carcinomas, further suggesting that the negative regulatory role of 14-3-3 sigma in the cell cycle is compromised during tumorigenesis. However, this possible tumor-suppressive role of 14-3-3 sigma has not yet been characterized. Here, we studied the link between 14-3-3 sigma activities and p53 regulation. We found that 14-3-3 sigma interacted with p53 in response to the DNA-damaging agent adriamycin. Importantly, 14-3-3 sigma expression led to stabilized expression of p53. In studying the molecular mechanism of this increased stabilization of p53, we found that 14-3-3 sigma antagonized the biological functions of Mdm2 by blocking Mdm2-mediated p53 ubiquitination and nuclear export. In addition, we found that 14-3-3 sigma facilitated the oligomerization of p53 and enhanced p53's transcriptional activity. As a target gene of p53, 14-3-3 sigma appears to have a positive feedback effect on p53 activity. Significantly, we also showed that overexpression of 14-3-3 sigma inhibited oncogene-activated tumorigenicity in a tetracycline-regulated 14-3-3 sigma system. These results defined an important p53 regulatory loop and suggested that 14-3-3 sigma expression can be considered for therapeutic intervention in cancers.

Regulation of poly(A) polymerase by 14-3-3epsilon

Poly(A) polymerase (PAP) is a key enzyme responsible for the addition of the poly(A) at the 3' end of pre-mRNA. The C-terminal region of mammalian PAP carries target sites for protein-protein interaction with the 25 kDa subunit of cleavage factor I and with splicing factors U1A and U2AF65. We used a yeast two-hybrid screen to identify 14-3-3epsilon as an additional protein binding to the C-terminal region of PAP. Interaction between PAP and 14-3-3epsilon was confirmed by both in vitro and in vivo binding assays. This interaction is dependent on PAP phosphorylation. Deletion analysis of PAP suggests that PAP contains multiple binding sites for 14-3-3epsilon. The binding of 14-3-3epsilon to PAP inhibits the polyadenylation activity of PAP in vitro, and overexpression of 14-3-3epsilon leads to a shorter poly(A) mRNA tail in vivo. In addition, the interaction between PAP and 14-3-3epsilon redistributes PAP within the cell by increasing its cytoplasmic localization. These data suggest that 14-3-3epsilon is involved in regulating both the activity and the nuclear/ cytoplasmic partitioning of PAP through the phosphorylation-dependent interaction.

The C-terminal tail of Arabidopsis 14-3-3omega functions as an autoinhibitor and may contain a tenth alpha-helix

The eukaryotic regulatory protein 14-3-3 is involved in many important plant cellular processes including regulation of nitrate assimilation through inhibition of phosphorylated nitrate reductase (pNR) in darkened leaves. Divalent metal cations (Me2+) and some polyamines interact with the loop 8 region of the 14-3-3 proteins and allow them to bind and inhibit pNR in vitro. The role of the highly variant C-terminal regions of the 14-3-3 isoforms in regulation by polycations is not clear. In this study, we carried out structural analyses on the C-terminal tail of the Arabidopsis 14-3-3omega isoform and evaluated its contributions to the inhibition of pNR. Nested C-terminal truncations of the recombinant 14-3-3omega protein revealed that the removal of the C-terminal tail renders the protein partially Mg2+-independent in both pNR binding and inhibition of activity, suggesting that the C-terminus functions as an autoinhibitor. The C-terminus of 14-3-3omega appears to undergo a conformational change in the presence of polycations as demonstrated by its increased trypsin cleavage at Lys-247. C-terminal truncation of 14-3-3omega at Thr-255 increased its interaction with antibodies to the C-terminus of 14-3-3omega in non-denaturing conditions, but not in denaturing conditions, suggesting that the C-terminal tail contains ordered structures that might be disrupted by the truncation. Circular dichroism (CD) analysis of a C-terminal peptide, from Trp-234 to Lys-249, revealed that the C-terminal tail might contain a tenth alpha-helix, in agreement with the in silico predictions. The function of the putative tenth alpha-helix is not clear because substituting two prolyl residues within the predicted helix (E245P/I246P mutant), which prevented the corresponding peptide from adopting a helical conformation, did not affect the inhibition of pNR activity in the presence or absence of Mg2+. We propose that in the absence of polycations, access of target proteins to their binding groove in the 14-3-3 protein is restricted by the C-terminus, which acts as part of a gate that opens with the binding of polycations to loop 8.

14-3-3 proteins find new partners in plant cell signalling

14-3-3 proteins are phosphoserine-binding proteins that regulate the activities of a wide array of targets via direct protein-protein interactions. In animal cells, the majority of their known targets are involved in signal transduction and transcription. In plants, we know about them primarily through their regulation of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase and enzymes of carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Nevertheless, an increasing number of plant signalling proteins are now being recognized as 14-3-3-interacting proteins. Plant 14-3-3 proteins bind a range of transcription factors and other signalling proteins, and have roles regulating plant development and stress responses. Important mechanisms of regulation by 14-3-3 include shuttling proteins between different cellular locations and acting as scaffolds for the assembly of larger signalling complexes.

Function and specificity of 14-3-3 proteins in the regulation of carbohydrate and nitrogen metabolism

Protein phosphorylation is key to the regulation of many proteins. Altered protein activity often requires the interaction of the phosphorylated protein with a class of "adapters" known as 14-3-3 proteins. This review will cover aspects of 14-3-3 interaction with key proteins of carbon and nitrogen metabolism such as nitrate reductase, glutamine synthetase and sucrose-phosphate synthase. It will also address 14-3-3 involvement in signal transduction pathways with emphasis on the regulation of plant metabolism. To date, 14-3-3 proteins have been identified and studied in many diverse systems, yielding a plethora of data, requiring careful analysis and interpretation. Problems such as these are not uncommon when dealing with multigene families. The number of isoforms makes the question of redundancy versus specificity of 14-3-3 proteins a crucial one. This issue is discussed in relation to structure, function and expression of 14-3-3 proteins.

Physical methods

Despite the advent of high-output, recombinant DNA-based screening strategies, many important protein-protein interactions in the plant cell have been and still are revealed using co-sedimentation, affinity chromatography and other affinity techniques, co-immunoprecipitation and cross-linking. The advantages of these techniques, the care that should be taken interpreting the data obtained and the possible ways to overcome pitfalls are illustrated.

14-3-3 proteins and plant development

The 14-3-3 proteins are a family of ubiquitous regulatory molecules which have been found in virtually every eukaryotic organism and tissue. Discovered 34 years ago, 14-3-3 proteins have first been studied in mammalian nervous tissues, but in the past decade their indispensable role in various plant regulatory and metabolic pathways has been increasingly established. We now know that 14-3-3 members regulate fundamental processes of nitrogen assimilation and carbon assimilation, play an auxiliary role in regulation of starch synthesis, ATP production, peroxide detoxification, and participate in modulation of several other important biochemical pathways. Plant development and seed germination appear also to be under control of factors whose interaction with 14-3-3 molecules is crucial for their activation. Located within the nucleus, 14-3-3 isoforms are constituents of transcription factor complexes and interact with components of abscisic acid (ABA)-induced gene expression machinery. In addition, in animal cells they participate in nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and molecular sequestration. Cytoplasmic 14-3-3 members form a guidance complex with chloroplast destined preproteins and facilitate their import into these photosynthetic organelles. Recently, several 14-3-3s have been identified within chloroplasts where they could be involved in targeting and insertion of thylakoid proteins. The identification of 14-3-3 isoform specificity, and in particular the elucidation of the signal transduction mechanisms connecting 14-3-3 members with physiological responses, are central and developing topics of current research in this field.

Metabolic enzymes as targets for 14-3-3 proteins

The 14-3-3 proteins are binding proteins that have been shown to interact with a wide array of enzymes involved in primary biosynthetic and energy metabolism in plants. In most cases, the significance of binding of the 14-3-3 protein is not known. However, most of the interactions are phosphorylation-dependent and most of the known binding partners are found in the cytosol, while some may also be localized to plastids and mitochondria. In this review, we examine the factors that may regulate the binding of 14-3-3s to their target proteins, and discuss their possible roles in the regulation of the activity and proteolytic degradation of enzymes involved in primary carbon and nitrogen metabolism.

Post-translational modification of barley 14-3-3A is isoform-specific and involves removal of the hypervariable C-terminus

The 14-3-3 protein family is a family of regulatory proteins involved in diverse cellular processes. In a previous study of regulation of individual 14-3-3 isoforms in the germinating barley embryo, we found that a post-translationally modified, 28 kDa form of 14-3-3A was present in specific cell fractions of the germinated embryo. In the present study, we identify the nature of the modification of 14-3-3A, and show that the 28 kDa doublet is the result of cleavage of the C-terminus. The 28 kDa forms of 14-3-3A lack ten or twelve amino acid residues at the non-conserved C-terminus of the protein, respectively. Barley 14-3-3B and 14-3-3C are not modified in a similar way. Like the 30 kDa form, in vitro produced 28 kDa 14-3-3A is still capable of binding AHA2 H+-ATPase in an overlay assay. Our results show a novel isoform-specific post-translational modification of 14-3-3 proteins that is regulated in a tissue-specific and developmental way.

Characterisation of two 14-3-3 genes from Trichoderma reesei: interactions with yeast secretory pathway components

The 14-3-3 proteins are highly conserved, ubiquitously expressed proteins taking part in numerous cellular processes. Two genes encoding 14-3-3 proteins, ftt1 and ftt2, were isolated and characterised from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei. FTTI showed the highest sequence identity (98% at the amino acid level) to the Trichoderma harzianum protein Th1433. FTTII is relatively distinct from FTTI, showing approximately 75% identity to other fungal 14-3-3 proteins. Despite their sequence divergence, both of the T. reesei ftt genes were equally able to complement the yeast bmh1 bmh2 double disruption. The T. reesei ftt genes were also found to be quite closely linked in the genomic DNA. A C-terminally truncated version of ftt1 (ftt1DeltaC) was first isolated as a multicopy suppressor of the growth defect of the temperature-sensitive yeast secretory mutant sec15-1. Overexpression of ftt1DeltaC also suppressed the growth defect of sec2-41, sec3-101, and sec7-1 strains. Overexpression of ftt1DeltaC in sec2-41 and sec15-1 strains could also rescue the secretion of invertase at the restrictive temperatures, and overexpression of full-length ftt1 enhanced invertase secretion by wild-type yeast cells. These findings strongly suggest that the T. reesei ftt1 has a role in protein secretion.