Arabidopsis Protein Kinase D6PKL3 Is Involved in the Formation of Distinct Plasma Membrane Aperture Domains on the Pollen Surface

OsPAD1, encoding a non-specific lipid transfer protein, is required for rice pollen aperture formation

Plant lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) are distinguished by their capacity to facilitate lipid transport in vitro between membranes. This includes the transportation of lipid constituents from the tapetum to the microspore, thereby playing a pivotal role in the synthesis and construction of the pollen wall, encompassing the formation of the pollen aperture. However, our understanding of LTPs and their role in pollen aperture formation in rice remains limited. In this study, we have isolated and characterized a male sterile rice mutant named as pollen aperture defect 1 (Ospad1). When compared to the wild type, Ospad1 mutant plants exhibit pollen grain abortion due to the absence of the fibrillar-granular layer, ultimately leading to the leakage of contents from the malformed aperture. OsPAD1 encodes a non-specific LTP and is specifically expressed in the microspore during male development. Subsequently, in vitro lipid binding assays reveal that the recombinant OsPAD1 protein has the capability to bind to a broad spectrum of lipids. The malfunction of OsPAD1 results in disrupted lipid metabolism and compromised pollen aperture, ultimately leading to male sterility. Furthermore, yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescent complementation and pull-down assays all demonstrate that OsPAD1 can directly interact with OsINP1, an orthologue of a crucial aperture factor in Arabidopsis, together regulating rice aperture development. These findings offer new insights into the molecular mechanisms that underlie the function of LTPs in rice pollen aperture formation. This research holds potential implications not only for rice but also for other cereal crops.

A leucine-rich-repeat receptor-like kinase regulates pollen aperture formation in rice

Apertures in pollen grains exhibit species-specific patterns and provide an ideal model for studying cell surface patterning. Pollen apertures are critical for cereal crop fertility, and while DEFECTIVE IN APERTURE FORMATION1 (OsDAF1) and INAPERTURATE POLLEN1 (OsINP1) have been documented to participate in pollen aperture formation in rice (Oryza sativa), the molecular transduction pathway regulating aperture formation is largely unknown. Here, we report that a leucine-rich-repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK), APERTURE MISSING1 (AM1), plays a key role in rice pollen aperture formation. Mutations of OsAM1 lead to complete sterility due to the disappearance of the pollen aperture and failure in pollen tube germination. OsAM1 encodes a LRR-RLK that belongs to the STRUBBELIG-receptor family. Similar to other reported aperture regulators, OsAM1 assembles to future aperture sites on tetrads after meiosis to regulate aperture formation. The extracellular and intracellular domain of OsAM1 interacts with OsINP1 and OsDAF1, respectively. However, despite their interaction and the absence of aperture formation in osam1 pollen grains, OsINP1 and OsDAF1 localize to future aperture sites at the tetrad stage. Mutation of OsINP1, however, disrupts normal localization of OsAM1, indicating that OsAM1 acts downstream of OsINP1. Our findings reveal the role of a LRR-RLK protein in pollen aperture formation and shed light on the regulatory network of pollen aperture formation.

OsSRF8 interacts with OsINP1 and OsDAF1 to regulate pollen aperture formation in rice

In higher plants, mature male gametophytes have distinct apertures. After pollination, pollen grains germinate, and a pollen tube grows from the aperture to deliver sperm cells to the embryo sac, completing fertilization. In rice, the pollen aperture has a single-pore structure with a collar-like annulus and a plug-like operculum. A crucial step in aperture development is the formation of aperture plasma membrane protrusion (APMP) at the distal polar region of the microspore during the late tetrad stage. Previous studies identified OsINP1 and OsDAF1 as essential regulators of APMP and pollen aperture formation in rice, but their precise molecular mechanisms remain unclear. We demonstrate that the Poaceae-specific OsSRF8 gene, encoding a STRUBBELIG-receptor family 8 protein, is essential for pollen aperture formation in Oryza sativa. Mutants lacking functional OsSRF8 exhibit defects in APMP and pollen aperture formation, like loss-of-function OsINP1 mutants. OsSRF8 is specifically expressed during early anther development and initially diffusely distributed in the microsporocytes. At the tetrad stage, OsSRF8 is recruited by OsINP1 to the pre-aperture region through direct protein-protein interaction, promoting APMP formation. The OsSRF8-OsINP1 complex then recruits OsDAF1 to the APMP site to co-regulate annulus formation. Our findings provide insights into the mechanisms controlling pollen aperture formation in cereal species.

Structural and molecular basis of pollen germination

Pollen germination is a prerequisite for double fertilization of flowering plants. A comprehensive understanding of the structural and molecular basis of pollen germination holds great potential for crop yield improvement. The pollen aperture serves as the foundation for most plant pollen germination and pollen aperture formation involves the establishment of cellular polarity, the formation of distinct membrane domains, and the precise deposition of extracellular substances. Successful pollen germination requires precise material exchange and signal transduction between the pollen grain and the stigma. Recent cytological and mutant analysis of pollen germination process in Arabidopsis and rice has expanded our understanding of this biological process. However, the overall changes in germination site structure and energy-related metabolites during pollen germination remain to be further explored. This review summarizes and compares the recent advances in the processes of pollen aperture formation, pollen adhesion, hydration, and germination between eudicot Arabidopsis and monocot rice, and provides insights into the structural basis and molecular mechanisms underlying pollen germination process.

Identification of Candidate Genes Involved in the Determinism of Pollen Grain Aperture Morphology by Comparative Transcriptome Analysis in Papaveraceae

In the last decade, certain genes involved in pollen aperture formation have been discovered. However, those involved in pollen aperture shape remain largely unknown. In Arabidopsis, the interaction during the tetrad development stage of one member of the ELMOD protein family, ELMOD_E, with two others, MCR/ELMOD_B and ELMOD_A, can change the morphology of apertures from colpus (elongated) to pore (round). Here, comparative transcriptome analysis is used to identify candidate genes involved in the determination of pollen aperture morphology in Papaveraceae (order Ranunculales). Furthermore, the role of ELMOD genes in the genetic determinism of aperture shape was tested by comparative analysis of their expression levels using RNA-seq data and RT-qPCR. Two pairs of species belonging to two different subfamilies were used. Within each pair, one species has colpate pollen and the other porate (Fumarioideae-Dactylicapnos torulosa, 6-colpate, and Fumaria bracteosa, pantoporate; Papaveroideae-Eschsholzia californica, 5-7 colpate, and Roemeria refracta, 6-porate). The transcriptomes were obtained at the tetrad stage of pollen development. A total of 531 DEGs were found between the colpate and porate pollen species groups. The results from RNA-seq and RT-qPCR indicate that pollen aperture shape is not determined by the relative expression levels of ELMOD family genes in Papaveraceae. However, genes related to callose wall formation or cytoskeleton organisation were found, these processes being involved in pollen aperture formation. In addition, transcriptomes from anthers with pollen during the tetrad stage of three species (D. torulosa, R. refracta, and F. bracteosa) were obtained for the first time. These data will be available for further studies in the field of floral evolution and development.

DEAP1 encodes a fasciclin-like arabinogalactan protein required for male fertility in rice

Arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) are widely distributed in plant cells. Fasciclin-like AGPs (FLAs) belong to a subclass of AGPs that play important roles in plant growth and development. However, little is known about the biological functions of rice FLA. Herein, we report the identification of a male-sterile mutant of DEFECTIVE EXINE AND APERTURE PATTERNING1 (DEAP1) in rice. The deap1 mutant anthers produced aberrant pollen grains with defective exine formation and a flattened aperture annulus and exhibited slightly delayed tapetum degradation. DEAP1 encodes a plasma membrane-associated member of group III plant FLAs and is specifically and temporally expressed in reproductive cells and the tapetum layer during male development. Gene expression studies revealed reduced transcript accumulation of genes related to exine formation, aperture patterning, and tapetum development in deap1 mutants. Moreover, DEAP1 may interact with two rice D6 PROTEIN KINASE-LIKE3s (OsD6PKL3s), homologs of a known Arabidopsis aperture protein, to affect rice pollen aperture development. Our findings suggested that DEAP1 is involved in male reproductive development and may affect exine formation and aperture patterning, thereby providing new insights into the molecular functions of plant FLAs in male fertility.

Engineering Pollen-Derived Microstructures to Reveal Material Morpho-Performance Paradigm

The morphologies of micromaterials play a key role in their functionality and efficiency across a broad range of applications, including catalysis, environmental remediation, and drug delivery. However, the relationships between the morphologies and performances of micromaterials still need to be further understood, to guide the rational design of effective morphologies for specific applications. A pollen-derived microstructure library containing multivariate morphological characterization and functional performance data is proposed and constructed here. Systematic multivariate correlation analysis is conducted to extract the key morphological factors influencing the photocatalytic and adsorption efficiencies, to reveal the morpho-performance relationships of pollen-derived microstructures. Subsequently, a chrysanthemum-derived microstructure is selected as a typical candidate; it features a unique morphology suitable for advanced photocatalysis and dynamic environmental remediation. To summarize, the construction of a pollen-derived microstructure library offers a powerful tool for studying the morpho-performance relationships of micromaterials; this can provide significant guidance and inspiration for the rational design of micro/nanomaterials for numerous applications.

Phosphorylation control of PIN auxin transporters

The directional transport of the phytohormone auxin is required for proper plant development and tropic growth. Auxin cell-to-cell transport gains directionality through the polar distribution of 'canonical' long PIN-FORMED (PIN) auxin efflux carriers. In recent years, AGC kinases, MAP kinases, Ca²⁺/CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE-RELATED KINASEs and receptor kinases have been implicated in the control of PIN activity, polarity and trafficking. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge in understanding the posttranslational regulation of PINs by these different protein kinase families. The proposed regulation of PINs by AGC kinases after salt stress and by the stress-activated MAP kinases suggest that abiotic and biotic stress factors may modulate auxin transport and thereby plant growth.

A Review of the Developmental Processes and Selective Pressures Shaping Aperture Pattern in Angiosperms

Pollen grains of flowering plants display a fascinating diversity of forms. The observed diversity is determined by the developmental mechanisms involved in the establishment of pollen morphological features. Pollen grains are generally surrounded by an extremely resistant wall displaying apertures that play a key role in reproduction, being the places at which pollen tube growth is initiated. Aperture number, structure, and position (collectively termed ‘aperture pattern’) are determined during microsporogenesis, which is the earliest step of pollen ontogeny. Here, we review current knowledge about aperture pattern developmental mechanisms and adaptive significance with respect to plant reproduction and how advances in these fields shed light on our understanding of aperture pattern evolution in angiosperms.

A nanodomain-anchored scaffolding complex is required for the function and localization of phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase alpha in plants

Phosphoinositides are low-abundant lipids that participate in the acquisition of membrane identity through their spatiotemporal enrichment in specific compartments. Phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P) accumulates at the plant plasma membrane driving its high electrostatic potential, and thereby facilitating interactions with polybasic regions of proteins. PI4Kα1 has been suggested to produce PI4P at the plasma membrane, but how it is recruited to this compartment is unknown. Here, we pin-point the mechanism that tethers Arabidopsis thaliana phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase alpha1 (PI4Kα1) to the plasma membrane via a nanodomain-anchored scaffolding complex. We established that PI4Kα1 is part of a complex composed of proteins from the NO-POLLEN-GERMINATION, EFR3-OF-PLANTS, and HYCCIN-CONTAINING families. Comprehensive knockout and knockdown strategies revealed that subunits of the PI4Kα1 complex are essential for pollen, embryonic, and post-embryonic development. We further found that the PI4Kα1 complex is immobilized in plasma membrane nanodomains. Using synthetic mis-targeting strategies, we demonstrate that a combination of lipid anchoring and scaffolding localizes PI4Kα1 to the plasma membrane, which is essential for its function. Together, this work opens perspectives on the mechanisms and function of plasma membrane nanopatterning by lipid kinases.

Arabidopsis annexin 5 is involved in maintenance of pollen membrane integrity and permeability

In Arabidopsis, a dry stigma surface enables a gradual hydration of pollen grains by a controlled release of water. Occasionally the grains may be exposed to extreme precipitations that cause rapid water influx and swelling, eventually leading to pollen membrane rupture. In metazoans, calcium- and phospholipid-binding proteins, referred to as annexins, participate in the repair of plasma membrane damages. It remains unclear, however, how this process is conducted in plants. Here, we examined whether plant annexin 5 (ANN5), the most abundant member of the annexin family in pollen, is involved in the restoration of pollen membrane integrity. We analyzed the cellular dynamics of ANN5 in pollen grains undergoing hydration in favorable or stress conditions. We observed a transient association of ANN5 with the pollen membrane during in vitro hydration that did not occur in the pollen grains being hydrated on the stigma. To simulate a rainfall, we performed spraying of the pollinated stigma with deionized water that induced ANN5 accumulation at the pollen membrane. Interestingly, calcium or magnesium application affected pollen membrane properties differently, causing rupture or shrinkage of pollen membrane, respectively. Both treatments, however, induced ANN5 recruitment to the pollen membrane. Our data suggest a model in which ANN5 is involved in the maintenance of membrane integrity in pollen grains exposed to osmotic or ionic imbalances.

D6 protein kinase in root xylem benefiting resistance to Fusarium reveals infection and defense mechanisms in tung trees

Fusarium oxysporum, a global soil-borne pathogen, causes severe disease in various cultivated plants. The mechanism underlying infection and resistance remains largely elusive. Vernicia fordii, known as the tung tree, suffers from disease caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. fordiis (Fof-1), while its sister species V. montana displays high resistance to Fof-1. To investigate the process of infection and resistance ability, we demonstrated that Fof-1 can penetrate the epidermis of root hairs and then centripetally invade the cortex and phloem in both species. Furthermore, Fof-1 spread upwards through the root xylem in susceptible V. fordii trees, whereas it failed to infect the root xylem in resistant V. montana trees. We found that D6 PROTEIN KINASE LIKE 2 (VmD6PKL2) was specifically expressed in the lateral root xylem and was induced after Fof-1 infection in resistant trees. Transgenic analysis in Arabidopsis and tomato revealed that VmD6PKL2 significantly enhanced resistance in both species, whereas the d6pkl2 mutant displayed reduced resistance against Fof-1. Additionally, VmD6PKL2 was identified to interact directly with synaptotagmin (VmSYT3), which is specifically expressed in the root xylem and mediates the negative regulation responding to Fof-1. Our data suggested that VmD6PKL2 could act as a resistance gene against Fof-1 through suppression of VmSYT3-mediated negative regulation in the lateral root xylem of the resistant species. These findings provide novel insight into Fusarium wilt resistance in plants.

Members of the ELMOD protein family specify formation of distinct aperture domains on the Arabidopsis pollen surface

Pollen apertures, the characteristic gaps in pollen wall exine, have emerged as a model for studying the formation of distinct plasma membrane domains. In each species, aperture number, position, and morphology are typically fixed; across species they vary widely. During pollen development, certain plasma membrane domains attract specific proteins and lipids and become protected from exine deposition, developing into apertures. However, how these aperture domains are selected is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that patterns of aperture domains in Arabidopsis are controlled by the members of the ancient ELMOD protein family, which, although important in animals, has not been studied in plants. We show that two members of this family, MACARON (MCR) and ELMOD_A, act upstream of the previously discovered aperture proteins and that their expression levels influence the number of aperture domains that form on the surface of developing pollen grains. We also show that a third ELMOD family member, ELMOD_E, can interfere with MCR and ELMOD_A activities, changing aperture morphology and producing new aperture patterns. Our findings reveal key players controlling early steps in aperture domain formation, identify residues important for their function, and open new avenues for investigating how diversity of aperture patterns in nature is achieved.

Zooming in on cells reveals patterns on their outer surfaces. These patterns are actually a collection of distinct areas of the cell surface, each containing specific combinations of molecules. The outer layers of pollen grains consist of a cell wall, and a softer cell membrane that sits underneath. As a pollen grain develops, it recruits certain fats and proteins to specific areas of the cell membrane, known as ‘aperture domains’. The composition of these domains blocks the cell wall from forming over them, leading to gaps in the wall called ‘pollen apertures’. Pollen apertures can open and close, aiding reproduction and protecting pollen grains from dehydration.

The number, location, and shape of pollen apertures vary between different plant species, but are consistent within the same species. In the plant species Arabidopsis thaliana, pollen normally develops three long and narrow, equally spaced apertures, but it remains unclear how pollen grains control the number and location of aperture domains.

Zhou et al. found that mutations in two closely related A. thaliana proteins – ELMOD_A and MCR – alter the number and positions of pollen apertures. When A. thaliana plants were genetically modified so that they would produce different levels of ELMOD_A and MCR, Zhou et al. observed that when more of these proteins were present in a pollen grain, more apertures were generated on the pollen surface. This finding suggests that the levels of these proteins must be tightly regulated to control pollen aperture numbers. Further tests revealed that another related protein, called ELMOD_E, also has a role in domain formation. When artificially produced in developing pollen grains, it interfered with the activity of ELMOD_A and MCR, changing pollen aperture shape, number, and location.

Zhou et al. identified a group of proteins that help control the formation of domains in the cell membranes of A. thaliana pollen grains. Further research will be required to determine what exactly these proteins do to promote formation of aperture domains and whether similar proteins control domain development in other organisms.

The Role of INAPERTURATE POLLEN1 as a Pollen Aperture Factor Is Conserved in the Basal Eudicot Eschscholzia californica (Papaveraceae)

Pollen grains show an enormous variety of aperture systems. What genes are involved in the aperture formation pathway and how conserved this pathway is in angiosperms remains largely unknown. INAPERTURATE POLLEN1 (INP1) encodes a protein of unknown function, essential for aperture formation in Arabidopsis, rice and maize. Yet, because INP1 sequences are quite divergent, it is unclear if their function is conserved across angiosperms. Here, we conducted a functional study of the INP1 ortholog from the basal eudicot Eschscholzia californica (EcINP1) using expression analyses, virus-induced gene silencing, pollen germination assay, and transcriptomics. We found that EcINP1 expression peaks at the tetrad stage of pollen development, consistent with its role in aperture formation, which occurs at that stage, and showed, via gene silencing, that the role of INP1 as an important aperture factor extends to basal eudicots. Using germination assays, we demonstrated that, in Eschscholzia, apertures are dispensable for pollen germination. Our comparative transcriptome analysis of wild-type and silenced plants identified over 900 differentially expressed genes, many of them potential candidates for the aperture pathway. Our study substantiates the importance of INP1 homologs for aperture formation across angiosperms and opens up new avenues for functional studies of other aperture candidate genes.

A species-specific functional module controls formation of pollen apertures

Pollen apertures are an interesting model for the formation of specialized plasma-membrane domains. The plant-specific protein INP1 serves as a key aperture factor in such distantly related species as Arabidopsis, rice and maize. Although INP1 orthologues probably play similar roles throughout flowering plants, they show substantial sequence divergence and often cannot substitute for each other, suggesting that INP1 might require species-specific partners. Here, we present a new aperture factor, INP2, which satisfies the criteria for being a species-specific partner for INP1. Both INP proteins display similar structural features, including the plant-specific DOG1 domain, similar patterns of expression and mutant phenotypes, as well as signs of co-evolution. These proteins interact with each other in a species-specific manner and can restore apertures in a heterologous system when both are expressed but not when expressed individually. Our findings suggest that the INP proteins form a species-specific functional module that underlies formation of pollen apertures.

Reproduction Multitasking: The Male Gametophyte

The gametophyte represents the sexual phase in the alternation of generations in plants; the other, nonsexual phase is the sporophyte. Here, we review the evolutionary origins of the male gametophyte among land plants and, in particular, its ontogenesis in flowering plants. The highly reduced male gametophyte of angiosperm plants is a two- or three-celled pollen grain. Its task is the production of two male gametes and their transport to the female gametophyte, the embryo sac, where double fertilization takes place. We describe two phases of pollen ontogenesis-a developmental phase leading to the differentiation of the male germline and the formation of a mature pollen grain and a functional phase representing the pollen tube growth, beginning with the landing of the pollen grain on the stigma and ending with double fertilization. We highlight recent advances in the complex regulatory mechanisms involved, including posttranscriptional regulation and transcript storage, intracellular metabolic signaling, pollen cell wall structure and synthesis, protein secretion, and phased cell-cell communication within the reproductive tissues.

Formation pattern and regulatory mechanisms of pollen wall in Arabidopsis

In angiosperms, mature pollen is wrapped by a pollen wall, which is important for maintaining pollen structure and function. Pollen walls provide protection from various environmental stresses and preserve pollen germination and pollen tube growth. The pollen wall structure has been described since pollen ultrastructure investigations began in the 1960s. Pollen walls, which are the most intricate cell walls in plants, are composed of two layers: the exine layer and intine layer. Pollen wall formation is a complex process that occurs via a series of biological events that involve a large number of genes. In recent years, many reports have described the molecular mechanisms of pollen exine development. The formation process includes the development of the callose wall, the wavy morphology of primexine, the biosynthesis and transport of sporopollenin in the tapetum, and the deposition of the pollen coat. The formation mechanism of the intine layer is different from that of the exine layer. However, few studies have focused on the regulatory mechanisms of intine development. The primary component of the intine layer is pectin, which plays an essential role in the polar growth of pollen tubes. Demethylesterified pectin is mainly distributed in the shank region of the pollen tube, which can maintain the hardness of the pollen tube wall. Methylesterified pectin is mainly located in the top region, which is beneficial for improving the plasticity of the pollen tube top. In this review, we summarize the developmental process of the anther, pollen and pollen wall in Arabidopsis; furthermore, we describe the research progress on the pollen wall formation pattern and its molecular mechanisms in detail.

Grass-Specific EPAD1 Is Essential for Pollen Exine Patterning in Rice

The highly variable and species-specific pollen surface patterns are formed by sporopollenin accumulation. The template for sporopollenin deposition and polymerization is the primexine that appears on the tetrad surface, but the mechanism(s) by which primexine guides exine patterning remain elusive. Here, we report that the Poaceae-specific EXINE PATTERN DESIGNER 1 (EPAD1), which encodes a nonspecific lipid transfer protein, is required for primexine integrity and pollen exine patterning in rice (Oryza sativa). Disruption of EPAD1 leads to abnormal exine pattern and complete male sterility, although sporopollenin biosynthesis is unaffected. EPAD1 is specifically expressed in male meiocytes, indicating that reproductive cells exert genetic control over exine patterning. EPAD1 possesses an N-terminal signal peptide and three redundant glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchor sites at its C terminus, segments required for its function and localization to the microspore plasma membrane. In vitro assays indicate that EPAD1 can bind phospholipids. We propose that plasma membrane lipids bound by EPAD1 may be involved in recruiting and arranging regulatory proteins in the primexine to drive correct exine deposition. Our results demonstrate that EPAD1 is a meiocyte-derived determinant that controls primexine patterning in rice, and its orthologs may play a conserved role in the formation of grass-specific exine pattern elements.

Pollen wall patterns as a model for biological self-assembly

We are still far from being able to predict organisms' shapes purely from their genetic codes. While it is imperative to identify which encoded macromolecules contribute to a phenotype, determining how macromolecules self-assemble independently of the genetic code may be equally crucial for understanding shape development. Pollen grains are typically single-celled microgametophytes that have decorated walls of various shapes and patterns. The accumulation of morphological data and a comprehensive understanding of the wall development makes this system ripe for mathematical and physical modeling. Therefore, pollen walls are an excellent system for identifying both the genetic products and the physical processes that result in a huge diversity of extracellular morphologies. In this piece, I highlight the current understanding of pollen wall biology relevant for quantification studies and enumerate the modellable aspects of pollen wall patterning and specific approaches that one may take to elucidate how pollen grains build their beautifully patterned walls.

Metabolic Cellular Communications: Feedback Mechanisms between Membrane Lipid Homeostasis and Plant Development

Membrane lipids are often viewed as passive building blocks of the endomembrane system. However, mounting evidence suggests that sphingolipids, sterols, and phospholipids are specifically targeted by developmental pathways, notably hormones, in a cell- or tissue-specific manner to regulate plant growth and development. Targeted modifications of lipid homeostasis may act as a way to execute a defined developmental program, for example, by regulating other signaling pathways or participating in cell differentiation. Furthermore, these regulations often feed back on the very signaling pathway that initiates the lipid metabolic changes. Here, we review several recent examples highlighting the intricate feedbacks between membrane lipid homeostasis and plant development. In particular, these examples illustrate how all aspects of membrane lipid metabolic pathways are targeted by these feedback regulations. We propose that the time has come to consider membrane lipids and lipid metabolism as an integral part of the developmental program needed to build a plant.

Functions of Anionic Lipids in Plants

Anionic phospholipids, which include phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine, and phosphoinositides, represent a small percentage of membrane lipids. They are able to modulate the physical properties of membranes, such as their surface charges, curvature, or clustering of proteins. Moreover, by mediating interactions with numerous membrane-associated proteins, they are key components in the establishment of organelle identity and dynamics. Finally, anionic lipids also act as signaling molecules, as they are rapidly produced or interconverted by a set of dedicated enzymes. As such, anionic lipids are major regulators of many fundamental cellular processes, including cell signaling, cell division, membrane trafficking, cell growth, and gene expression. In this review, we describe the functions of anionic lipids from a cellular perspective. Using the localization of each anionic lipid and its related metabolic enzymes as starting points, we summarize their roles within the different compartments of the endomembrane system and address their associated developmental and physiological consequences.

Rice pollen aperture formation is regulated by the interplay between OsINP1 and OsDAF1

The aperture on the pollen surface provides an exit for the emerging pollen tube. Apertures exhibit huge morphological variation across plant species-grasses, including rice, possess a complex aperture consisting of an annulus and an operculum-but little is known about how this species-specific cell-surface pattern forms. Here, we report a lectin receptor-like kinase in Oryza sativa, OsDAF1, which is essential for annulus formation and thus for fertility. OsDAF1 is evenly distributed in early microsporocytes but localizes to the distal pre-aperture site at the tetrad stage. We further reveal that the rice orthologue of a key aperture factor in Arabidopsis, OsINP1, has conserved and diversified roles in rice aperture formation. Disruption of OsINP1 prevents formation of the aperture, precluding pollen-tube germination. Furthermore, our results demonstrate that OsINP1 is required for polarization of OsDAF1 via direct protein interaction, suggesting that OsINP1 has an additional role in the formation of annulus that is absent in Arabidopsis. Our study reveals the importance of the aperture for rice grain yield and reveals mechanisms controlling pollen aperture development in cereal species.

Basic-hydrophobic sites are localized in conserved positions inside and outside of PH domains and affect localization of Dictyostelium myosin 1s

Myosin 1s have critical roles in linking membranes to the actin cytoskeleton via direct binding to acidic lipids. Lipid binding may occur through PIP3/PIP2-specific PH domains or nonspecific ionic interactions involving basic-hydrophobic (BH) sites but the mechanism of myosin 1s distinctive lipid targeting is poorly understood.  Now we show that PH domains occur in all Dictyostelium myosin 1s and that the BH sites of Myo1A, B, C, D, and F are in conserved positions near the β3/β4 loops of their PH domains. In spite of these shared lipid-binding sites, we observe significant differences in myosin 1s highly dynamic localizations. All myosin 1s except Myo1A are present in macropinocytic structures but only Myo1B and Myo1C are enriched at the edges of macropinocytic cups and associate with the actin in actin waves.  In contrast, Myo1D, E, and F are enclosed by the actin wave.  Mutations of BH sites affect localization of all Dictyostelium myosin 1s. Notably, mutation of the BH site located within the PH domains of PIP3-specific Myo1D and Myo1F completely eradicates membrane binding. Thus, BH sites are important determinants of motor targeting and may have a similar role in the localization of other myosin 1s.

Formation of aperture sites on the pollen surface as a model for development of distinct cellular domains

Pollen grains are covered by the complex extracellular structure, called exine, which in most species is deposited on the pollen surface non-uniformly. Certain surface areas receive fewer exine deposits and develop into regions whose structure and morphology differ significantly from the rest of pollen wall. These regions are known as pollen apertures. Across species, pollen apertures can vary in their numbers, positions, and morphology, generating highly diverse patterns. The process of aperture formation involves establishment of cell polarity, formation of distinct plasma membrane domains, and deposition of extracellular materials at precise positions. Thus, pollen apertures present an excellent model for studying the development of cellular domains and formation of patterns at the single-cell level. Until very recently, the molecular mechanisms underlying the specification and formation of aperture sites were completely unknown. Here, we review recent advances in understanding of the molecular processes involved in pollen aperture formation, focusing on the molecular players identified through genetic approaches in the model plant Arabidopsis. We discuss a potential working model that describes the process of aperture formation, including specification of domains, creation of their defining features, and protection of these regions from exine deposition.

Arabidopsis Trichome Contains Two Plasma Membrane Domains with Different Lipid Compositions Which Attract Distinct EXO70 Subunits

Plasma membrane (PM) lipid composition and domain organization are modulated by polarized exocytosis. Conversely, targeting of secretory vesicles at specific domains in the PM is carried out by exocyst complexes, which contain EXO70 subunits that play a significant role in the final recognition of the target membrane. As we have shown previously, a mature Arabidopsis trichome contains a basal domain with a thin cell wall and an apical domain with a thick secondary cell wall, which is developed in an EXO70H4-dependent manner. These domains are separated by a cell wall structure named the Ortmannian ring. Using phospholipid markers, we demonstrate that there are two distinct PM domains corresponding to these cell wall domains. The apical domain is enriched in phosphatidic acid (PA) and phosphatidylserine, with an undetectable amount of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂), whereas the basal domain is PIP₂-rich. While the apical domain recruits EXO70H4, the basal domain recruits EXO70A1, which corresponds to the lipid-binding capacities of these two paralogs. Loss of EXO70H4 results in a loss of the Ortmannian ring border and decreased apical PA accumulation, which causes the PA and PIP₂ domains to merge together. Using transmission electron microscopy, we describe these accumulations as a unique anatomical feature of the apical cell wall-radially distributed rod-shaped membranous pockets, where both EXO70H4 and lipid markers are immobilized.

Changes in morphogen kinetics and pollen grain size are potential mechanisms of aberrant pollen aperture patterning in previously observed and novel mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana

Pollen provides an excellent system to study pattern formation at the single-cell level. Pollen surface is covered by the pollen wall exine, whose deposition is excluded from certain surface areas, the apertures, which vary between the species in their numbers, positions, and morphology. What determines aperture patterns is not understood. Arabidopsis thaliana normally develops three apertures, equally spaced along the pollen equator. However, Arabidopsis mutants whose pollen has higher ploidy and larger volume develop four or more apertures. To explore possible mechanisms responsible for aperture patterning, we developed a mathematical model based on the Gierer-Meinhardt system of equations. This model was able to recapitulate aperture patterns observed in the wild-type and higher-ploidy pollen. We then used this model to further explore geometric and kinetic factors that may influence aperture patterns and found that pollen size, as well as certain kinetic parameters, like diffusion and decay of morphogens, could play a role in formation of aperture patterns. In conjunction with mathematical modeling, we also performed a forward genetic screen in Arabidopsis and discovered two mutants with aperture patterns that had not been previously observed in this species but were predicted by our model. The macaron mutant develops a single ring-like aperture, matching the unusual ring-like pattern produced by the model. The doughnut mutant forms two pore-like apertures at the poles of the pollen grain. Further tests on these novel mutants, motivated by the modeling results, suggested the existence of an area of inhibition around apertures that prevents formation of additional apertures in their vicinity. This work demonstrates the ability of the theoretical model to help focus experimental efforts and to provide fundamental insights into an important biological process.

Pollen is renowned for its ability to form beautiful and complex patterns on its surface. One of the most prominent patterns on the pollen surface is formed by apertures, the regions that lack deposition of the pollen wall exine and develop at precise locations which often vary between the species. How aperture patterns are created is an intriguing and poorly understood question. We developed a mathematical model that aims to explore the mechanisms responsible for the aperture patterning in the pollen of the model plant Arabidopsis. Our model showed that size of the pollen grain could be solely responsible for the increase in aperture number observed in the pollen of some Arabidopsis mutants. Additionally, kinetic parameters, such as diffusion and decay of aperture factors, could also influence aperture number. We coupled our mathematical modeling with a forward genetic screen of a mutagenized population of Arabidopsis. This screen discovered novel mutants with aperture patterns that had been predicted by our mathematical model. Further experiments on these mutants provided additional support to the modeling predictions. These results demonstrate that mathematical modeling could be a powerful tool for understanding the mechanisms responsible for patterning of pollen grains.