Widespread Exon Junction Complex Footprints in the RNA Degradome Mark mRNA Degradation before Steady State Translation

H3K36 methylation stamps transcription resistive to preserve development in plants

Eukaryotic euchromatin is the less-compact chromatin and is modified by many histone modifications such as H3 lysine 36 methylation (H3K36me). Here we report a new chromatin state, 'transcription resistive', which is differentiated from activation and silencing. Transcription resistive is stamped by H3K36me with almost undetectable transcription activity but open-chromatin state, and occupies most documented plant essential genes. Mutating SDG8, previously known as the major H3K36 methyltransferase in Arabidopsis, surprisingly elevates 78.7% of H3K36me3-marked resistive loci, which accounts for 39.4% of the coding genome. Genetically, SDG8 prevents H3K36me activity of SDG4 at short and intronless genes to secure plant fertility, while it collaborates with other H3K36me methyltransferases on long and intron-rich genes. Together, our results reveal that SDG8 is the primary sensor that suppresses excessive H3K36me, and uncovered that 'transcription resistive' is a conserved H3K36me-stamped novel transcription state in plants, highlighting the regulatory diversities and biological significance of H3K36 methylation in eukaryotes.

mRNA ADENOSINE METHYLASE promotes drought tolerance through N6-methyladenosine-dependent and independent impacts on mRNA regulation in Arabidopsis

Among many mRNA modifications, adenine methylation at the N6 position (N6-methyladenosine, m6A) is known to affect mRNA biology extensively. The influence of m6A has yet to be assessed under drought, one of the most impactful abiotic stresses. We show that Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. (Arabidopsis) plants lacking mRNA ADENOSINE METHYLASE (MTA) are drought-sensitive. Subsequently, we comprehensively assess the impacts of MTA-dependent m6A changes during drought on mRNA abundance, stability, and translation in Arabidopsis. During drought, there is a global trend toward hypermethylation of many protein-coding transcripts that does not occur in mta. We also observe complex regulation of m6A at a transcript-specific level, possibly reflecting compensation by other m6A components. Importantly, a subset of transcripts that are hypermethylated in an MTA-dependent manner exhibited reduced turnover and translation in mta, compared with wild-type (WT) plants, during drought. Additionally, MTA impacts transcript stability and translation independently of m6A. We also correlate drought-associated deposition of m6A with increased translation of modulators of drought response, such as RD29A, COR47, COR413, ALDH2B, ERD7, and ABF4 in WT, which is impaired in mta. m6A is dynamic during drought and, alongside MTA, promotes tolerance by regulating drought-responsive changes in transcript turnover and translation.

Comparative analyses suggest a link between mRNA splicing, stability, and RNA covalent modifications in flowering plants

BACKGROUND

In recent years, covalent modifications on RNA nucleotides have emerged as pivotal moieties influencing the structure, function, and regulatory processes of RNA Polymerase II transcripts such as mRNAs and lncRNAs. However, our understanding of their biological roles and whether these roles are conserved across eukaryotes remains limited.

RESULTS

In this study, we leveraged standard polyadenylation-enriched RNA-sequencing data to identify and characterize RNA modifications that introduce base-pairing errors into cDNA reads. Our investigation incorporated data from three Poaceae (Zea mays, Sorghum bicolor, and Setaria italica), as well as publicly available data from a range of stress and genetic contexts in Sorghum and Arabidopsis thaliana. We uncovered a strong enrichment of RNA covalent modifications (RCMs) deposited on a conserved core set of nuclear mRNAs involved in photosynthesis and translation across these species. However, the cohort of modified transcripts changed based on environmental context and developmental program, a pattern that was also conserved across flowering plants. We determined that RCMs can partly explain accession-level differences in drought tolerance in Sorghum, with stress-associated genes receiving a higher level of RCMs in a drought tolerant accession. To address function, we determined that RCMs are significantly enriched near exon junctions within coding regions, suggesting an association with splicing. Intriguingly, we found that these base-pair disrupting RCMs are associated with stable mRNAs, are highly correlated with protein abundance, and thus likely associated with facilitating translation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data point to a conserved role for RCMs in mRNA stability and translation across the flowering plant lineage.

Plant immunity suppressor SKRP encodes a novel RNA-binding protein that targets exon 3' end of unspliced RNA

The regulatory roles of RNA splicing in plant immunity are emerging but still largely obscure. We reported previously that Phytophthora pathogen effector Avr3c targets a soybean protein SKRP (serine/lysine/arginine-rich protein) to impair soybean basal immunity by regulating host pre-mRNA alternative splicing, while the biochemical nature of SKRP remains unknown. Here, by using Arabidopsis as a model, we studied the mechanism of SKRP in regulating pre-mRNA splicing and plant immunity. AtSKRP confers impaired plant immunity against Phytophthora capsici and associates with spliceosome component PRP8 and splicing factor SR45, which positively and negatively regulate plant immunity, respectively. Enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (eCLIP-seq) showed AtSKRP is a novel RNA-binding protein that targets exon 3' end of unspliced RNA. Such position-specific binding of SKRP is associated with its activity in suppressing intron retention, including at positive immune regulatory genes UBP25 and RAR1. In addition, we found AtSKRP self-interact and forms oligomer, and these properties are associated with its function in plant immunity. Overall, our findings reveal that the immune repressor SKRP is a spliceosome-associated protein that targets exon 3' end to regulate pre-mRNA splicing in Arabidopsis.

RNA degradome analysis reveals DNE1 endoribonuclease is required for the turnover of diverse mRNA substrates in Arabidopsis

In plants, cytoplasmic mRNA decay is critical for posttranscriptionally controlling gene expression and for maintaining cellular RNA homeostasis. Arabidopsis DCP1-ASSOCIATED NYN ENDORIBONUCLEASE 1 (DNE1) is a cytoplasmic mRNA decay factor that interacts with proteins involved in mRNA decapping and nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD). There is limited information on the functional role of DNE1 in RNA turnover, and the identities of its endogenous targets are unknown. In this study, we utilized RNA degradome approaches to globally investigate DNE1 substrates. Monophosphorylated 5' ends, produced by DNE1, should accumulate in mutants lacking the cytoplasmic exoribonuclease XRN4, but be absent from DNE1 and XRN4 double mutants. In seedlings, we identified over 200 such transcripts, most of which reflect cleavage within coding regions. While most DNE1 targets were NMD-insensitive, some were upstream ORF (uORF)-containing and NMD-sensitive transcripts, indicating that this endoribonuclease is required for turnover of a diverse set of mRNAs. Transgenic plants expressing DNE1 cDNA with an active-site mutation in the endoribonuclease domain abolished the in planta cleavage of transcripts, demonstrating that DNE1 endoribonuclease activity is required for cleavage. Our work provides key insights into the identity of DNE1 substrates and enhances our understanding of DNE1-mediated mRNA decay.

Arabidopsis mRNA decay landscape shaped by XRN 5'-3' exoribonucleases

5'-3' exoribonucleases (XRNs) play crucial roles in the control of RNA processing, quality, and quantity in eukaryotes. Although genome-wide profiling of RNA decay fragments is now feasible, how XRNs shape the plant mRNA degradome remains elusive. Here, we profiled and analyzed the RNA degradomes of Arabidopsis wild-type and mutant plants with defects in XRN activity. Deficiency of nuclear XRN3 or cytoplasmic XRN4 activity but not nuclear XRN2 activity greatly altered Arabidopsis mRNA decay profiles. Short excised linear introns and cleaved pre-mRNA fragments downstream of polyadenylation sites were polyadenylated and stabilized in the xrn3 mutant, demonstrating the unique function of XRN3 in the removal of cleavage remnants from pre-mRNA processing. Further analysis of stabilized XRN3 substrates confirmed that pre-mRNA 3' end cleavage frequently occurs after adenosine. The most abundant decay intermediates in wild-type plants include not only the primary substrates of XRN4 but also the products of XRN4-mediated cytoplasmic decay. An increase in decay intermediates with 5' ends upstream of a consensus motif in the xrn4 mutant suggests that there is an endonucleolytic cleavage mechanism targeting the 3' untranslated regions of many Arabidopsis mRNAs. However, analysis of decay fragments in the xrn4 mutant indicated that, except for microRNA-directed slicing, endonucleolytic cleavage events in the coding sequence rarely result in major decay intermediates. Together, these findings reveal the major substrates and products of nuclear and cytoplasmic XRNs along Arabidopsis transcripts and provide a basis for precise interpretation of RNA degradome data.

Exon architecture controls mRNA m6A suppression and gene expression

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant messenger RNA (mRNA) modification and plays crucial roles in diverse physiological processes. Using a massively parallel assay for m6A (MPm6A), we discover that m6A specificity is globally regulated by suppressors that prevent m6A deposition in unmethylated transcriptome regions. We identify exon junction complexes (EJCs) as m6A suppressors that protect exon junction-proximal RNA within coding sequences from methylation and regulate mRNA stability through m6A suppression. EJC suppression of m6A underlies multiple global characteristics of mRNA m6A specificity, with the local range of EJC protection sufficient to suppress m6A deposition in average-length internal exons but not in long internal and terminal exons. EJC-suppressed methylation sites colocalize with EJC-suppressed splice sites, which suggests that exon architecture broadly determines local mRNA accessibility to regulatory complexes.

MicroRNA miR394 regulates flowering time in Arabidopsis thaliana

miR394 regulates Arabidopsis flowering time in a LCR-independent manner. Arabidopsis plants harboring mutations in theMIR394 genes exhibit early flowering, lower expression of floral repressor FLC and higher expression of floral integrators FT and SOC1. Plant development occurs throughout its entire life cycle and involves a phase transition between vegetative and reproductive phases, leading to the flowering process, fruit formation and ultimately seed production. It has been shown that the microRNA394 (miR394) regulates the accumulation of the transcript coding for LEAF CURLING RESPONSIVENESS, a member of a family of F-Box proteins. The miR394 pathway regulates several processes including leaf morphology and development of the shoot apical meristem during embryogenesis, as well as having been assigned a role in the response to biotic and abiotic stress in Arabidopsis thaliana and other species. Here, we characterized plants harboring mutations in MIR394 precursor genes and demonstrate that mir394a mir394b double mutants display an early flowering phenotype which correlates with a lower expression of FLOWERING LOCUS C earlier in development and higher expression of the floral integrators FLOWERING LOCUS T and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1. Consequently, mutant plants produce fewer branches and exhibit lower seed production. Our work reveals previously unknown developmental aspects regulated by the miR394 pathway, in an LCR-independent manner, contributing to the characterization of the multiple roles of this versatile plant regulatory miRNA.

Methods for detecting RNA degradation intermediates in plants

RNA degradation is an important process for controlling gene expression and is mediated by decapping / deadenylation-dependent or endonucleolytic cleavage-dependent RNA degradation mechanisms. High-throughput sequencing of RNA degradation intermediates was initially developed in Arabidopsis thaliana and similar RNA degradome sequencing methods were conducted in other eukaryotes. However, interpreting results obtained by these sequencing methods is fragmented, and an overview is needed. Here we review the findings and limitations of these sequencing methods and discuss the missing experiments needed to understand RNA degradation intermediates accurately. This review provides direction for future research on RNA degradation and is a reference for RNA degradome studies in other species.

A 24,482-bp deletion is associated with increased seed weight in Brassica napus L

A major QTL for seed weight was fine-mapped in rapeseed, and a 24,482-bp deletion likely mediates the effect through multiple pathways. Exploration of the genes controlling seed weight is critical to the improvement of crop yield and elucidation of the mechanisms underlying seed formation in rapeseed (Brassica napus L.). We previously identified the quantitative trait locus (QTL) qSW.C9 for the thousand-seed weight (TSW) in a double haploid population constructed from F₁ hybrids between the parental accessions HZ396 and Y106. Here, we confirmed the phenotypic effects associated with qSW.C9 in BC₃F₂ populations and fine-mapped the candidate causal locus to a 266-kb interval. Sequence and expression analyses revealed that a 24,482-bp deletion in HZ396 containing six predicted genes most likely underlies qSW.C9. Differential gene expression analysis and cytological observations suggested that qSW.C9 affects both cell proliferation and cell expansion through multiple signaling pathways. After genotyping of a rapeseed diversity panel to define the haplotype structure, it could be concluded that the selection of germplasm with two specific markers may be effective in improving the seed weight of rapeseed. This study provides a solid foundation for the identification of the causal gene of qSW.C9 and offers a promising target for the breeding of higher-yielding rapeseed.

The role of RST1 and RIPR proteins in plant RNA quality control systems

To keep mRNA homeostasis, the RNA degradation, quality control and silencing systems should act in balance in plants. Degradation of normal mRNA starts with deadenylation, then deadenylated transcripts are degraded by the SKI-exosome 3'-5' and/or XRN4 5'-3' exonucleases. RNA quality control systems identify and decay different aberrant transcripts. RNA silencing degrades double-stranded transcripts and homologous mRNAs. It also targets aberrant and silencing prone transcripts. The SKI-exosome is essential for mRNA homeostasis, it functions in normal mRNA degradation and different RNA quality control systems, and in its absence silencing targets normal transcripts. It is highly conserved in eukaryotes, thus recent reports that the plant SKI-exosome is associated with RST1 and RIPR proteins and that, they are required for SKI-exosome-mediated decay of silencing prone transcripts were unexpected. To clarify whether RST1 and RIPR are essential for all SKI-exosome functions or only for the elimination of silencing prone transcripts, degradation of different reporter transcripts was studied in RST1 and RIPR inactivated Nicotiana benthamiana plants. As RST1 and RIPR, like the SKI-exosome, were essential for Non-stop and No-go decay quality control systems, and for RNA silencing- and minimum ORF-mediated decay, we propose that RST1 and RIPR are essential components of plant SKI-exosome supercomplex.

Nonsense suppression therapies in human genetic diseases

About 11% of all human disease-associated gene lesions are nonsense mutations, resulting in the introduction of an in-frame premature translation-termination codon (PTC) into the protein-coding gene sequence. When translated, PTC-containing mRNAs originate truncated and often dysfunctional proteins that might be non-functional or have gain-of-function or dominant-negative effects. Therapeutic strategies aimed at suppressing PTCs to restore deficient protein function-the so-called nonsense suppression (or PTC readthrough) therapies-have the potential to provide a therapeutic benefit for many patients and in a broad range of genetic disorders, including cancer. These therapeutic approaches comprise the use of translational readthrough-inducing compounds that make the translational machinery recode an in-frame PTC into a sense codon. However, most of the mRNAs carrying a PTC can be rapidly degraded by the surveillance mechanism of nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), thus decreasing the levels of PTC-containing mRNAs in the cell and their availability for PTC readthrough. Accordingly, the use of NMD inhibitors, or readthrough-compound potentiators, may enhance the efficiency of PTC suppression. Here, we review the mechanisms of PTC readthrough and their regulation, as well as the recent advances in the development of novel approaches for PTC suppression, and their role in personalized medicine.

Changes in mRNA Degradation Efficiencies under Varying Conditions Are Regulated by Multiple Determinants in Arabidopsis thaliana

Multiple mechanisms are involved in gene expression, with mRNA degradation being critical for the control of mRNA accumulation. In plants, although some trans-acting factors and motif sequences have been identified in deadenylation-dependent mRNA degradation, endonucleolytic cleavage-dependent mRNA degradation has not been studied in detail. Previously, we developed truncated RNA-end sequencing (TREseq) in Arabidopsis thaliana and detected G-rich sequence motifs around 5' degradation intermediates. However, it remained to be elucidated whether degradation efficiencies of 5' degradation intermediates in A. thaliana vary among growth conditions and developmental stages. To address this issue, we conducted TREseq of cultured cells under heat stress and at three developmental stages (seedlings, expanding leaves and expanded leaves) and compared 5' degradation intermediates data among the samples. Although some 5' degradation intermediates had almost identical degradation efficiencies, others differed among conditions. We focused on the genes and sites whose degradation efficiencies differed. Changes in degradation efficiencies at the gene and site levels revealed an effect on mRNA accumulation in all comparisons. These changes in degradation efficiencies involved multiple determinants, including mRNA length and translation efficiency. These results suggest that several determinants govern the efficiency of mRNA degradation in plants, helping the organism to adapt to varying conditions by controlling mRNA accumulation.

Fast and Efficient 5'P Degradome Library Preparation for Analysis of Co-Translational Decay in Arabidopsis

The recent development of high-throughput technologies based on RNA sequencing has allowed a better description of the role of post-transcriptional regulation in gene expression. In particular, the development of degradome approaches based on the capture of 5′monophosphate decay intermediates allows the discovery of a new decay pathway called co-translational mRNA decay. Thanks to these approaches, ribosome dynamics could now be revealed by analysis of 5′P reads accumulation. However, library preparation could be difficult to set-up for non-specialists. Here, we present a fast and efficient 5′P degradome library preparation for Arabidopsis samples. Our protocol was designed without commercial kit and gel purification and can be easily done in one working day. We demonstrated the robustness and the reproducibility of our protocol. Finally, we present the bioinformatic reads-outs necessary to assess library quality control.

Improved computational analysis of ribosome dynamics from 5'P degradome data using fivepseq

In eukaryotes, 5′–3′ co-translation degradation machinery follows the last translating ribosome providing an in vivo footprint of its position. Thus, 5′ monophosphorylated (5′P) degradome sequencing, in addition to informing about RNA decay, also provides information regarding ribosome dynamics. Multiple experimental methods have been developed to investigate the mRNA degradome; however, computational tools for their reproducible analysis are lacking. Here, we present fivepseq: an easy-to-use application for analysis and interactive visualization of 5′P degradome data. This tool performs both metagene- and gene-specific analysis, and enables easy investigation of codon-specific ribosome pauses. To demonstrate its ability to provide new biological information, we investigate gene-specific ribosome pauses in Saccharomyces cerevisiae after eIF5A depletion. In addition to identifying pauses at expected codon motifs, we identify multiple genes with strain-specific degradation frameshifts. To show its wide applicability, we investigate 5′P degradome from Arabidopsis thaliana and discover both motif-specific ribosome protection associated with particular developmental stages and generally increased ribosome protection at termination level associated with age. Our work shows how the use of improved analysis tools for the study of 5′P degradome can significantly increase the biological information that can be derived from such datasets and facilitate its reproducible analysis.

Monitoring of XRN4 Targets Reveals the Importance of Cotranslational Decay during Arabidopsis Development

RNA turnover is a general process that maintains appropriate mRNA abundance at the posttranscriptional level. Although long thought to be antagonistic to translation, discovery of the 5' to 3' cotranslational mRNA decay pathway demonstrated that both processes are intertwined. Cotranslational mRNA decay globally shapes the transcriptome in different organisms and in response to stress; however, the dynamics of this process during plant development is poorly understood. In this study, we used a multiomics approach to reveal the global landscape of cotranslational mRNA decay during Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) seedling development. We demonstrated that cotranslational mRNA decay is regulated by developmental cues. Using the EXORIBONUCLEASE4 (XRN4) loss-of-function mutant, we showed that XRN4 poly(A+) mRNA targets are largely subject to cotranslational decay during plant development. As cotranslational mRNA decay is interconnected with translation, we also assessed its role in translation efficiency. We discovered that clusters of transcripts were specifically subjected to cotranslational decay in a developmental-dependent manner to modulate their translation efficiency. Our approach allowed the determination of a cotranslational decay efficiency that could be an alternative to other methods to assess transcript translation efficiency. Thus, our results demonstrate the prevalence of cotranslational mRNA decay in plant development and its role in translational control.