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A Review of Modeling Approaches for Understanding and Monitoring the Environmental Effects of Marine Renewable Energy. JOURNAL OF MARINE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jmse10010094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the environmental effects of marine energy (ME) devices is fundamental for their sustainable development and efficient regulation. However, measuring effects is difficult given the limited number of operational devices currently deployed. Numerical modeling is a powerful tool for estimating environmental effects and quantifying risks. It is most effective when informed by empirical data and coordinated with the development and implementation of monitoring protocols. We reviewed modeling techniques and information needs for six environmental stressor–receptor interactions related to ME: changes in oceanographic systems, underwater noise, electromagnetic fields (EMFs), changes in habitat, collision risk, and displacement of marine animals. This review considers the effects of tidal, wave, and ocean current energy converters. We summarized the availability and maturity of models for each stressor–receptor interaction and provide examples involving ME devices when available and analogous examples otherwise. Models for oceanographic systems and underwater noise were widely available and sometimes applied to ME, but need validation in real-world settings. Many methods are available for modeling habitat change and displacement of marine animals, but few examples related to ME exist. Models of collision risk and species response to EMFs are still in stages of theory development and need more observational data, particularly about species behavior near devices, to be effective. We conclude by synthesizing model status, commonalities between models, and overlapping monitoring needs that can be exploited to develop a coordinated and efficient set of protocols for predicting and monitoring the environmental effects of ME.
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2
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Drackett L, Dragićević S. Suitability Analysis of Acoustic Refugia for Endangered Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) Using the GIS-based Logic Scoring of Preference Method. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 68:262-278. [PMID: 34019115 DOI: 10.1007/s00267-021-01481-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
An emerging priority in marine noise pollution research is identifying marine "acoustic refugia" where noise levels are relatively low and good-quality habitat is available to acoustically sensitive species. The endangered Southern Resident population of killer whales (Orcinus orca) that inhabits the transboundary Salish Sea in Canada and the USA are affected by noise pollution. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and spatial multicriteria evaluation (MCE) methods have been used to operationalize suitability analysis in ecology and conservation for site selection problems. However, commonly used methods lack the ability to represent complex logical relationships between input criteria. Therefore, the objective of this study is to apply a more advanced MCE method, known as Logic Scoring of Preference (LSP), to identify acoustic refugia for killer whales in the Salish Sea. This GIS-based LSP-MCE approach considers multiple input criteria by combining input data representing killer whale habitat requirements with noise pollution and other factors to identify suitable acoustic refugia. The results indicate the locations of suitable acoustic refugia and how they are affected by noise pollution from marine vessels in three scenarios developed to represent different levels of vessel traffic. Identifying acoustic refugia can contribute to efforts to reduce the effect of marine noise pollution on killer whale populations by highlighting high-priority areas in which to implement policies such as traffic-limiting measures or marine protected areas. Moreover, the proposed LSP-MCE procedure combines criteria in a stepwise manner that can support environmental management decision-making processes and can be applied to other marine suitability analysis contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Logan Drackett
- Spatial Analysis and Modeling Laboratory, Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Suzana Dragićević
- Spatial Analysis and Modeling Laboratory, Department of Geography, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.
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Hopkins GA, Gilbertson F, Floerl O, Casanovas P, Pine M, Cahill P. Continuous bubble streams for controlling marine biofouling on static artificial structures. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11323. [PMID: 33987009 PMCID: PMC8092111 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofouling accumulation is not proactively managed on most marine static artificial structures (SAS) due to the lack of effective options presently available. We describe a series of laboratory and field trials that examine the efficacy of continuous bubble streams in maintaining SAS free of macroscopic biofouling and demonstrate that this treatment approach is effective on surface types commonly used in the marine environment. At least two mechanisms were shown to be at play: the disruption of settlement created by the bubble stream, and the scouring of recently settled larvae through shear stress. Field trials conducted over a one-year period identified fouling on diffusers as a major issue to long-term treatment applications. Field measurements suggest that noise associated with surface mounted air blowers and sub-surface diffusers will be highly localised and of low environmental risk. Future studies should aim to develop and test systems at an operational scale.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Matt Pine
- Department of Biology, University of Victoria, B.C. Canada
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4
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Fish sounds near Sachs Harbour and Ulukhaktok in Canada’s Western Arctic. Polar Biol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00300-020-02701-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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5
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Xu W, Dong L, Caruso F, Gong Z, Li S. Long-term and large-scale spatiotemporal patterns of soundscape in a tropical habitat of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236938. [PMID: 32785235 PMCID: PMC7423153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the characteristics of ambient sound in shallow waters southwest of Hainan Island, China, a tropical habitat of the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin. The spatiotemporal patterns of soundscape in this area were thus studied and described here. Acoustic data collected from February 2018 to February 2019 at ten monitoring sites, spanning ~200 km of the coastline, were analyzed. The ambient sound characteristics in the investigated area showed significant spatiotemporal variations. Sound levels centered at 0.5 and 1 kHz were higher during dusk and night than other times of the day at all monitoring sites except for one. Higher sound levels at frequencies above 8 kHz were documented during autumn and winter at all sites except for three of them. Biological and anthropogenic sound sources including soniferous fishes, snapping shrimps, dolphins, ships, pile-driving activities, and explosions were identified during spectrogram analyses of a subsample of the dataset. The shipping noise was frequently detected throughout the monitoring sites. Spatiotemporal variations of the soundscape in the investigated waters provided baseline information on the local marine environment, which will be beneficial to the protection of the vulnerable Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin population recently discovered in the investigated waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanxue Xu
- Marine Mammal and Marine Bioacoustics Laboratory, Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lijun Dong
- Marine Mammal and Marine Bioacoustics Laboratory, Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya, China
| | - Francesco Caruso
- Marine Mammal and Marine Bioacoustics Laboratory, Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya, China
| | - Zining Gong
- Marine Mammal and Marine Bioacoustics Laboratory, Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Songhai Li
- Marine Mammal and Marine Bioacoustics Laboratory, Institute of Deep-sea Science and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya, China
- Tropical Marine Science Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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6
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Proulx R, Waldinger J, Koper N. Anthropogenic Landscape Changes and Their Impacts on Terrestrial and Freshwater Soundscapes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40823-019-00038-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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7
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Leunissen EM, Dawson SM. Underwater noise levels of pile-driving in a New Zealand harbour, and the potential impacts on endangered Hector's dolphins. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 135:195-204. [PMID: 30301031 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Impact pile-driving generates loud underwater anthropogenic sounds, and is routinely conducted in harbours around the world. Surprisingly few studies of these sounds and their propagation are published in the primary literature. To partially redress this we studied pile-driving sounds in Lyttelton Harbour, New Zealand, during wharf reconstruction after earthquake damage. That Lyttelton harbour is routinely used by Hector's dolphins (Cephalorhynchus hectori), an endangered species found only in New Zealand, provided further context for this study. Steel piles of 0.61 or 0.71 m diameter were driven using three different pile-drivers. Maximum calculated source SEL was 192 dB re 1 μPa2s @ 1 m (SPL0-p of 213 dB re 1 μPa @ 1 m). Propagation of piling noise was strongly influenced by harbour bathymetry and a rock breakwater near the piling operation. We calculated range estimates at which Hector's dolphins may suffer temporary hearing threshold shift and behavioural change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva M Leunissen
- Marine Science Department, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.
| | - Stephen M Dawson
- Marine Science Department, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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8
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Hafla E, Johnson E, Johnson CN, Preston L, Aldridge D, Roberts JD. Modeling underwater noise propagation from marine hydrokinetic power devices through a time-domain, velocity-pressure solution. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 143:3242. [PMID: 29960489 DOI: 10.1121/1.5039839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Marine hydrokinetic (MHK) devices generate electricity from the motion of tidal and ocean currents, as well as ocean waves, to provide an additional source of renewable energy available to the United States. These devices are a source of anthropogenic noise in the marine ecosystem and must meet regulatory guidelines that mandate a maximum amount of noise that may be generated. In the absence of measured levels from in situ deployments, a model for predicting the propagation of sound from an array of MHK sources in a real environment is essential. A set of coupled, linearized velocity-pressure equations in the time-domain are derived and presented in this paper, which are an alternative solution to the Helmholtz and wave equation methods traditionally employed. Discretizing these equations on a three-dimensional (3D), finite-difference grid ultimately permits a finite number of complex sources and spatially varying sound speeds, bathymetry, and bed composition. The solution to this system of equations has been parallelized in an acoustic-wave propagation package developed at Sandia National Labs, called Paracousti. This work presents the broadband sound pressure levels from a single source in two-dimensional (2D) ideal and Pekeris wave-guides and in a 3D domain with a sloping boundary. The paper concludes with demonstration of Paracousti for an array of MHK sources in a simple wave-guide.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Hafla
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, 59718, USA
| | - E Johnson
- Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana, 59718, USA
| | - C N Johnson
- DNV GL Energy and Sustainability, 1501 4th Avenue Suite 900, Seattle, Washington 98101, USA
| | - L Preston
- Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Southeast, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - D Aldridge
- Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Southeast, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
| | - J D Roberts
- Sandia National Laboratories, 1515 Eubank Southeast, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87123, USA
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Halliday WD, Insley SJ, Hilliard RC, de Jong T, Pine MK. Potential impacts of shipping noise on marine mammals in the western Canadian Arctic. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 123:73-82. [PMID: 28918981 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
As the Arctic warms and sea ice decreases, increased shipping will lead to higher ambient noise levels in the Arctic Ocean. Arctic marine mammals are vulnerable to increased noise because they use sound to survive and likely evolved in a relatively quiet soundscape. We model vessel noise propagation in the proposed western Canadian Arctic shipping corridor in order to examine impacts on marine mammals and marine protected areas (MPAs). Our model predicts that loud vessels are audible underwater when >100km away, could affect marine mammal behaviour when within 2km for icebreakers vessels, and as far as 52km for tankers. This vessel noise could have substantial impacts on marine mammals during migration and in MPAs. We suggest that locating the corridor farther north, use of marine mammal observers on vessels, and the reduction of vessel speed would help to reduce this impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- William D Halliday
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, 169 Titanium Way, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory Y1A 0E9, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Stephen J Insley
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, 169 Titanium Way, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory Y1A 0E9, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada.
| | - R Casey Hilliard
- Institute for Big Data Analytics, Department of Computer Science, Dalhousie University, 6050 University Ave., Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Tyler de Jong
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, 169 Titanium Way, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory Y1A 0E9, Canada
| | - Matthew K Pine
- Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, 169 Titanium Way, Whitehorse, Yukon Territory Y1A 0E9, Canada; Department of Biology, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, British Columbia V8P 5C2, Canada
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Fossati C, Mussi B, Tizzi R, Pavan G, Pace DS. Italy introduces pre and post operation monitoring phases for offshore seismic exploration activities. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 120:376-378. [PMID: 28506427 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Concern is growing that marine fauna can be affected by noise such as naval sonar, pile driving or geophysical surveys, among others. Literature reports a variety of animal reactions to human noise (from apparently null or negligible to strong). However, conclusive results on its effects on marine mammals at individual and population level are still lacking. In 2015, the Italian Environmental Impact Assessment Commission mandated seismic operators apply a standard scientific protocol comparing marine mammal presence before, during, and after offshore seismic survey. For 60days before and after the survey, marine mammals are monitored using visual and acoustic methods. One or more acoustic autonomous recorders, depending on area size, must also be deployed throughout the three phases for continuous monitoring. Consistent data gathered from many surveys will enable robust statistical analysis of results. Diffusion of this monitoring method internationally would improve the study of far-reaching, intense, low frequency noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Fossati
- CIBRA, Department of Earth and Environment Science, Pavia University, CONISMA, Rome, Italy.
| | - B Mussi
- Oceanomare Delphis Onlus, Via Gino Marinuzzi 74, Rome, Italy
| | - R Tizzi
- Oceanomare Delphis Onlus, Via Gino Marinuzzi 74, Rome, Italy
| | - G Pavan
- CIBRA, Department of Earth and Environment Science, Pavia University, CONISMA, Rome, Italy
| | - D S Pace
- Oceanomare Delphis Onlus, Via Gino Marinuzzi 74, Rome, Italy; Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
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11
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Chen F, Shapiro GI, Bennett KA, Ingram SN, Thompson D, Vincent C, Russell DJF, Embling CB. Shipping noise in a dynamic sea: a case study of grey seals in the Celtic Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 114:372-383. [PMID: 27677390 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.09.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Shipping noise is a threat to marine wildlife. Grey seals are benthic foragers, and thus experience acoustic noise throughout the water column, which makes them a good model species for a case study of the potential impacts of shipping noise. We used ship track data from the Celtic Sea, seal track data and a coupled ocean-acoustic modelling system to assess the noise exposure of grey seals along their tracks. It was found that the animals experience step changes in sound levels up to ~20dB at a frequency of 125Hz, and ~10dB on average over 10-1000Hz when they dive through the thermocline, particularly during summer. Our results showed large seasonal differences in the noise level experienced by the seals. These results reveal the actual noise exposure by the animals and could help in marine spatial planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Chen
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - G I Shapiro
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - K A Bennett
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK; School of Science, Engineering and Technology, Abertay University, Dundee, UK
| | - S N Ingram
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
| | - D Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, UK
| | - C Vincent
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, CNRS/University of La Rochelle, 2 rue Olympe de Gouges, 17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - D J F Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, UK
| | - C B Embling
- School of Marine Science and Engineering, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
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Willsteed E, Gill AB, Birchenough SNR, Jude S. Assessing the cumulative environmental effects of marine renewable energy developments: Establishing common ground. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 577:19-32. [PMID: 27817927 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.10.152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Assessing and managing the cumulative impacts of human activities on the environment remains a major challenge to sustainable development. This challenge is highlighted by the worldwide expansion of marine renewable energy developments (MREDs) in areas already subject to multiple activities and climate change. Cumulative effects assessments in theory provide decision makers with adequate information about how the environment will respond to the incremental effects of licensed activities and are a legal requirement in many nations. In practise, however, such assessments are beset by uncertainties resulting in substantial delays during the licensing process that reduce MRED investor confidence and limit progress towards meeting climate change targets. In light of these targets and ambitions to manage the marine environment sustainably, reducing the uncertainty surrounding MRED effects and cumulative effects assessment are timely and vital. This review investigates the origins and evolution of cumulative effects assessment to identify why the multitude of approaches and pertinent research have emerged, and discusses key considerations and challenges relevant to assessing the cumulative effects of MREDs and other activities on ecosystems. The review recommends a shift away from the current reliance on disparate environmental impact assessments and limited strategic environmental assessments, and a move towards establishing a common system of coordinated data and research relative to ecologically meaningful areas, focussed on the needs of decision makers tasked with protecting and conserving marine ecosystems and services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Willsteed
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, UK; Cefas, Lowestoft Laboratory, Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk NR33 0HT, UK.
| | - Andrew B Gill
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, UK.
| | | | - Simon Jude
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Beds MK43 0AL, UK.
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Solan M, Hauton C, Godbold JA, Wood CL, Leighton TG, White P. Anthropogenic sources of underwater sound can modify how sediment-dwelling invertebrates mediate ecosystem properties. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20540. [PMID: 26847483 PMCID: PMC4742813 DOI: 10.1038/srep20540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Coastal and shelf environments support high levels of biodiversity that are vital in mediating ecosystem processes, but they are also subject to noise associated with mounting levels of offshore human activity. This has the potential to alter the way in which species interact with their environment, compromising the mediation of important ecosystem properties. Here, we show that exposure to underwater broadband sound fields that resemble offshore shipping and construction activity can alter sediment-dwelling invertebrate contributions to fluid and particle transport--key processes in mediating benthic nutrient cycling. Despite high levels of intra-specific variability in physiological response, we find that changes in the behaviour of some functionally important species can be dependent on the class of broadband sound (continuous or impulsive). Our study provides evidence that exposing coastal environments to anthropogenic sound fields is likely to have much wider ecosystem consequences than are presently acknowledged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Solan
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH
| | - Chris Hauton
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH
| | - Jasmin A Godbold
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH.,Centre for Biological Sciences, Faculty of Natural and Environmental Sciences, University of Southampton, Highfield Campus, Southampton, SO17 1BJ
| | - Christina L Wood
- Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton, Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, SO14 3ZH
| | - Timothy G Leighton
- Institute of Sound &Vibration Research, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ
| | - Paul White
- Institute of Sound &Vibration Research, Faculty of Engineering and the Environment, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ
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