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Knorrn AH, Teder T, Kaasik A, Kreitsberg R. Beneath the blades: Marine wind farms support parts of local biodiversity - a systematic review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 935:173241. [PMID: 38768731 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Offshore wind energy developments in European waters are rapidly expanding to meet the increasing global demand for renewable energy. These developments provide new substrates for species colonisation, but also introduce changes in electromagnetic fields, noise levels, and hydrological conditions. Understanding how these man-made structures affect marine biodiversity across various species groups is crucial, yet our knowledge in this field remains incomplete. In this synthesis paper, based on 14 case studies conducted in northeastern Atlantic (North, Irish and Baltic seas), we aggregated species-level data on abundance, biomass, and other quantity proxies spanning the entire food chain from invertebrates to mammals, and compared these variables between wind farms and nearby control sites. Overall, our analysis revealed that in wind farm areas, species tend to occur at higher quantities than in control areas. Additionally, we noticed a slight trend where the positive effect of wind farms was more pronounced in newly established ones, gradually diminishing as wind farms aged. None of the tested covariates (depth, distance from coastline, years in commission) nor species' characteristics (habitat and spawning types, trophic level) showed statistical significance. When examining species groups individually, there was a tendency for wind farm areas to harbour higher quantities of polychaetes, echinoderms and demersal fishes. These findings suggest that wind farms contribute to the so-called reef-effect, providing shelter and food supplies to their inhabitants and acting as no-take-zones. Our results support the idea that wind farms could serve as zones of increased local biodiversity, potentially facilitating spillover effects to nearby areas for certain species groups. Further studies are necessary to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the adverse effects of wind farms on associated biodiversity, while also exploring avenues to amplify their positive impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander H Knorrn
- Marine Research Department, Senckenberg am Meer, Südstrand 40, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany; MARUM, Research Faculty University of Bremen, Loebener Str. 8, 28359 Bremen, Germany.
| | - Tiit Teder
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Juhan Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia; Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcka 129, Praha 6, Suchdol 165 21, Czech Republic
| | - Ants Kaasik
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Juhan Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Randel Kreitsberg
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Juhan Liivi 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
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2
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Hemery LG, Garavelli L, Copping AE, Farr H, Jones K, Baker-Horne N, Kregting L, McGarry LP, Sparling C, Verling E. Animal displacement from marine energy development: Mechanisms and consequences. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 917:170390. [PMID: 38286287 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024]
Abstract
For marine wave and tidal energy to successfully contribute to global renewable energy goals and climate change mitigation, marine energy projects need to expand beyond small deployments to large-scale arrays. However, with large-scale projects come potential environmental effects not observed at the scales of single devices and small arrays. One of these effects is the risk of displacing marine animals from their preferred habitats or their migration routes, which may increase with the size of arrays and location. Many marine animals may be susceptible to some level of displacement once large marine energy arrays are increasingly integrated into the seascape, including large migratory animals, non-migratory pelagic animals with large home ranges, and benthic and demersal mobile organisms with more limited ranges, among many others. Yet, research around the mechanisms and effects of displacement have been hindered by the lack of clarity within the international marine energy community regarding the definition of displacement, how it occurs, its consequences, species of concern, and methods to investigate the outcomes. This review paper leveraged lessons learned from other industries, such as offshore development, to establish a definition of displacement in the marine energy context, explore which functional groups of marine animals may be affected and in what way, and identify pathways for investigating displacement through modeling and monitoring. In the marine energy context, we defined displacement as the outcome of one of three mechanisms (i.e., attraction, avoidance, and exclusion) triggered by an animal's response to one or more stressors acting as a disturbance, with various consequences at the individual through population levels. The knowledge gaps highlighted in this study will help the regulatory and scientific communities prepare for mitigating, observing, measuring, and characterizing displacement of various animals around marine energy arrays in order to prevent irreversible consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenaïg G Hemery
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Coastal Sciences Division, 1529 West Sequim Bay Road, Sequim, WA 98382, USA.
| | - Lysel Garavelli
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Coastal Sciences Division, 1100 Dexter Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Andrea E Copping
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Coastal Sciences Division, 1100 Dexter Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Hayley Farr
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Coastal Sciences Division, 1100 Dexter Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kristin Jones
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Coastal Sciences Division, 1529 West Sequim Bay Road, Sequim, WA 98382, USA
| | - Nicholas Baker-Horne
- School of Electronics, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Queen's University Belfast, Queen's Marine Laboratory, 12-13 The Strand, Portaferry, Northern Ireland BT221PF, UK
| | - Louise Kregting
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Ltd, 293 Akersten Street, Nelson 7010, New Zealand
| | - Louise P McGarry
- Echoview Software Pty Ltd, GPO Box 1387, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Carol Sparling
- Scottish Oceans Institute, East Sands, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Emma Verling
- MaREI, University College Cork, Ringaskiddy, Co. Cork P43 C573, Ireland
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3
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Frankish CK, von Benda-Beckmann AM, Teilmann J, Tougaard J, Dietz R, Sveegaard S, Binnerts B, de Jong CAF, Nabe-Nielsen J. Ship noise causes tagged harbour porpoises to change direction or dive deeper. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 197:115755. [PMID: 37976591 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Shipping is the most pervasive source of marine noise pollution globally, yet its impact on sensitive fauna remains unclear. We tracked 10 harbour porpoises for 5-10 days to determine exposure and behavioural reactions to modelled broadband noise (10 Hz-20 kHz, VHF-weighted) from individual ships monitored by AIS. Porpoises spent a third of their time experiencing ship noise above ambient, to which they regularly reacted by moving away during daytime and diving deeper during night. However, even ships >2 km away (noise levels of 93 ± 14 dB re 1 μPa2) caused animals to react 5-9 % of the time (∼18.6 ships/day). Ships can thus influence the behaviour and habitat use of cetaceans over long distances, with worrying implications for fitness in coastal areas where anthropogenic noise from dense ship traffic repeatedly disrupt their natural behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin K Frankish
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Alexander M von Benda-Beckmann
- Acoustics and Sonar Research Group, Netherlands Organization for Applied and Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Jakob Tougaard
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Rune Dietz
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Signe Sveegaard
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Bas Binnerts
- Acoustics and Sonar Research Group, Netherlands Organization for Applied and Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Christ A F de Jong
- Acoustics and Sonar Research Group, Netherlands Organization for Applied and Scientific Research (TNO), The Hague, the Netherlands
| | - Jacob Nabe-Nielsen
- Marine Mammal Research Section, Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
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4
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Winship KA, Jones BL. Acoustic Monitoring of Professionally Managed Marine Mammals for Health and Welfare Insights. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2124. [PMID: 37443922 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Research evaluating marine mammal welfare and opportunities for advancements in the care of species housed in a professional facility have rapidly increased in the past decade. While topics, such as comfortable housing, adequate social opportunities, stimulating enrichment, and a high standard of medical care, have continued to receive attention from managers and scientists, there is a lack of established acoustic consideration for monitoring the welfare of these animals. Marine mammals rely on sound production and reception for navigation and communication. Regulations governing anthropogenic sound production in our oceans have been put in place by many countries around the world, largely based on the results of research with managed and trained animals, due to the potential negative impacts that unrestricted noise can have on marine mammals. However, there has not been an established best practice for the acoustic welfare monitoring of marine mammals in professional care. By monitoring animal hearing and vocal behavior, a more holistic view of animal welfare can be achieved through the early detection of anthropogenic sound sources, the acoustic behavior of the animals, and even the features of the calls. In this review, the practice of monitoring cetacean acoustic welfare through behavioral hearing tests and auditory evoked potentials (AEPs), passive acoustic monitoring, such as the Welfare Acoustic Monitoring System (WAMS), as well as ideas for using advanced technologies for utilizing vocal biomarkers of health are introduced and reviewed as opportunities for integration into marine mammal welfare plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelley A Winship
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Dr., Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92106, USA
| | - Brittany L Jones
- National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2240 Shelter Island Dr., Suite 200, San Diego, CA 92106, USA
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5
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Gorman CE, Torsney A, Gaughran A, McKeon CM, Farrell CA, White C, Donohue I, Stout JC, Buckley YM. Reconciling climate action with the need for biodiversity protection, restoration and rehabilitation. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159316. [PMID: 36228799 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Globally, we are faced with a climate crisis that requires urgent transition to a low-carbon economy. Simultaneously, the biodiversity crisis demands equally urgent action to prevent further species loss and promote restoration and rehabilitation of ecosystems. Climate action itself must prevent further pressures on biodiversity and options for synergistic gains for both climate and biodiversity change mitigation and adaptation need to be explored and implemented. Here, we review the key potential impacts of climate mitigation measures in energy and land-use on biodiversity, including the development of renewable energy such as offshore and onshore wind, solar, and bioenergy. We also assess the potential impacts of climate action driven afforestation and native habitat rehabilitation and restoration. We apply our findings to Ireland as a unique case-study as the government develops a coordinated response to climate and biodiversity change through declaration of a joint climate and biodiversity emergency and inclusion of biodiversity in key climate change legislation and the national Climate Action Plan. However, acknowledgement of these intertwined crises is only a first step; implementation of synergistic solutions requires careful planning. We demonstrate how synergy between climate and biodiversity action can be gained through explicit consideration of the effects of climate change mitigation strategies, such as energy infrastructure development and land-use change, on biodiversity. We identify several potential "win-win" strategies for both climate mitigation and biodiversity conservation. For Ireland, these include increasing offshore wind capacity, rehabilitating natural areas surrounding onshore wind turbines, and limiting the development of solar photovoltaics to the built environment. Ultimately, climate mitigation should be implemented in a "Right Action, Right Place" framework to maximise positive biodiversity benefits. This review provides one of the first examples of how national climate actions can be implemented in a biodiversity-conscious way to initiate discussion about synergistic solutions for both climate and biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney E Gorman
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | - Andrew Torsney
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Caroline M McKeon
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | | | - Cian White
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Ian Donohue
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Jane C Stout
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Yvonne M Buckley
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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6
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Maxwell SM, Kershaw F, Locke CC, Conners MG, Dawson C, Aylesworth S, Loomis R, Johnson AF. Potential impacts of floating wind turbine technology for marine species and habitats. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 307:114577. [PMID: 35091240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Offshore wind energy is expanding globally and new floating wind turbine technology now allows wind energy developments in areas previously too deep for fixed-platform turbines. Floating offshore wind has the potential to greatly expand our renewable energy portfolio, but with rapid expansion planned globally, concerns exist regarding impacts to marine species and habitats. Floating turbines currently exist in three countries but large-scale and rapid expansion is planned in over a dozen. This technology comes with unique potential ecological impacts. Here, we outline the various floating wind turbine configurations, and consider the potential impacts on marine mammals, seabirds, fishes and benthic ecosystems. We focus on the unique risks floating turbines may pose with respect to: primary and secondary entanglement of marine life in debris ensnared on mooring lines used to stabilize floating turbines or dynamic inter-array cables; behavioral modification and displacement, such as seabird attraction to perching opportunities; turbine and vessel collision; and benthic habitat degradation from turbine infrastructure, for example from scour from anchors and inter-array cables. We highlight mitigation techniques that can be applied by managers or mandated through policy, such as entanglement deterrents or the use of cable and mooring line monitoring technologies to monitor for and reduce entanglement potential, or smart siting to reduce impacts to critical habitats. We recommend turbine configurations that are likely to have the lower ecological impacts, particularly taut or semi-taut mooring configurations, and we recommend studies and technologies still needed that will allow for floating turbines to be applied with limited ecological impacts, for example entanglement monitoring and deterrent technologies. Our review underscores additional research and mitigation techniques are required for floating technology, beyond those needed for pile-driven offshore or inshore turbines, and that understanding and mitigating the unique impacts from this technology is critical to sustainability of marine ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara M Maxwell
- School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington, Bothell, Bothell, WA, USA.
| | - Francine Kershaw
- Natural Resources Defense Council, 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY, USA
| | - Cameron C Locke
- School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington, Bothell, Bothell, WA, USA
| | - Melinda G Conners
- School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Cyndi Dawson
- Castalia Environmental, Hanover St, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Sandy Aylesworth
- Natural Resources Defense Council, 111 Sutter St, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Rebecca Loomis
- Natural Resources Defense Council, 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY, USA
| | - Andrew F Johnson
- MarFishEco Fisheries Consultants, 67/6 Brunswick Street, Edinburgh, EH7 5HT, Scotland, UK; Marine Sustainability, Policy & Conservation Evidence (Marine SPACE) Group, The Lyell Centre, Institute of Life and Earth Sciences, School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK
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7
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Iorio-Merlo V, Graham IM, Hewitt RC, Aarts G, Pirotta E, Hastie GD, Thompson PM. Prey encounters and spatial memory influence use of foraging patches in a marine central place forager. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20212261. [PMID: 35232237 PMCID: PMC8889173 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2021.2261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the patchiness and long-term predictability of marine resources, memory of high-quality foraging grounds is expected to provide fitness advantages for central place foragers. However, it remains challenging to characterize how marine predators integrate memory with recent prey encounters to adjust fine-scale movement and use of foraging patches. Here, we used two months of movement data from harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) to quantify the repeatability in foraging patches as a proxy for memory. We then integrated these data into analyses of fine-scale movement and underwater behaviour to test how both spatial memory and prey encounter rates influenced the seals' area-restricted search (ARS) behaviour. Specifically, we used one month's GPS data from 29 individuals to build spatial memory maps of searched areas and archived accelerometery data from a subset of five individuals to detect prey catch attempts, a proxy for prey encounters. Individuals were highly consistent in the areas they visited over two consecutive months. Hidden Markov models showed that both spatial memory and prey encounters increased the probability of seals initiating ARS. These results provide evidence that predators use memory to adjust their fine-scale movement, and this ability should be accounted for in movement models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Iorio-Merlo
- School of Biological Sciences, Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YJ, UK
| | - Isla M Graham
- School of Biological Sciences, Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YJ, UK
| | - Rebecca C Hewitt
- School of Biological Sciences, Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YJ, UK
| | - Geert Aarts
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group and Wageningen Marine Research, Wageningen University and Research, Ankerpark 27, 1781 AG Den Helder, The Netherlands.,Department of Coastal Systems, NIOZ Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Texel, The Netherlands
| | - Enrico Pirotta
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9LZ, UK.,School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Gordon D Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, UK
| | - Paul M Thompson
- School of Biological Sciences, Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YJ, UK
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8
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Hastie GD, Lepper P, McKnight JC, Milne R, Russell DJF, Thompson D. Acoustic risk balancing by marine mammals: anthropogenic noise can influence the foraging decisions by seals. J Appl Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.13931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gordon D. Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife UK
| | | | - J. Chris McKnight
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife UK
| | - Ryan Milne
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife UK
| | - Debbie J. F. Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife UK
| | - David Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Scottish Oceans Institute University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife UK
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9
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McKnight JC, Ruesch A, Bennett K, Bronkhorst M, Balfour S, Moss SEW, Milne R, Tyack PL, Kainerstorfer JM, Hastie GD. Shining new light on sensory brain activation and physiological measurement in seals using wearable optical technology. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2021; 376:20200224. [PMID: 34121458 PMCID: PMC8200653 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2020.0224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory ecology and physiology of free-ranging animals is challenging to study but underpins our understanding of decision-making in the wild. Existing non-invasive human biomedical technology offers tools that could be harnessed to address these challenges. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), a wearable, non-invasive biomedical imaging technique measures oxy- and deoxyhaemoglobin concentration changes that can be used to detect localized neural activation in the brain. We tested the efficacy of fNIRS to detect cortical activation in grey seals (Halichoerus grypus) and identify regions of the cortex associated with different senses (vision, hearing and touch). The activation of specific cerebral areas in seals was detected by fNIRS in responses to light (vision), sound (hearing) and whisker stimulation (touch). Physiological parameters, including heart and breathing rate, were also extracted from the fNIRS signal, which allowed neural and physiological responses to be monitored simultaneously. This is, to our knowledge, the first time fNIRS has been used to detect cortical activation in a non-domesticated or laboratory animal. Because fNIRS is non-invasive and wearable, this study demonstrates its potential as a tool to quantitatively investigate sensory perception and brain function while simultaneously recording heart rate, tissue and arterial oxygen saturation of haemoglobin, perfusion changes and breathing rate in free-ranging animals. This article is part of the theme issue 'Measuring physiology in free-living animals (Part I)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Chris McKnight
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Alexander Ruesch
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Kimberley Bennett
- Division of Science, School of Engineering and Technology, Abertay University, Dundee, UK
| | - Mathijs Bronkhorst
- Artinis Medical Systems BV, Einsteinweg 17, 6662 PW Elst, The Netherlands
| | - Steve Balfour
- Sea Mammal Research Unit Instrumentation Group, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Simon E. W. Moss
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Ryan Milne
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Peter L. Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Jana M. Kainerstorfer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Gordon D. Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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10
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Nelms SE, Alfaro-Shigueto J, Arnould JPY, Avila IC, Bengtson Nash S, Campbell E, Carter MID, Collins T, Currey RJC, Domit C, Franco-Trecu V, Fuentes MMPB, Gilman E, Harcourt RG, Hines EM, Hoelzel AR, Hooker SK, Johnston DW, Kelkar N, Kiszka JJ, Laidre KL, Mangel JC, Marsh H, Maxwell SM, Onoufriou AB, Palacios DM, Pierce GJ, Ponnampalam LS, Porter LJ, Russell DJF, Stockin KA, Sutaria D, Wambiji N, Weir CR, Wilson B, Godley BJ. Marine mammal conservation: over the horizon. ENDANGER SPECIES RES 2021. [DOI: 10.3354/esr01115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine mammals can play important ecological roles in aquatic ecosystems, and their presence can be key to community structure and function. Consequently, marine mammals are often considered indicators of ecosystem health and flagship species. Yet, historical population declines caused by exploitation, and additional current threats, such as climate change, fisheries bycatch, pollution and maritime development, continue to impact many marine mammal species, and at least 25% are classified as threatened (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable) on the IUCN Red List. Conversely, some species have experienced population increases/recoveries in recent decades, reflecting management interventions, and are heralded as conservation successes. To continue these successes and reverse the downward trajectories of at-risk species, it is necessary to evaluate the threats faced by marine mammals and the conservation mechanisms available to address them. Additionally, there is a need to identify evidence-based priorities of both research and conservation needs across a range of settings and taxa. To that effect we: (1) outline the key threats to marine mammals and their impacts, identify the associated knowledge gaps and recommend actions needed; (2) discuss the merits and downfalls of established and emerging conservation mechanisms; (3) outline the application of research and monitoring techniques; and (4) highlight particular taxa/populations that are in urgent need of focus.
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Affiliation(s)
- SE Nelms
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK
| | - J Alfaro-Shigueto
- ProDelphinus, Jose Galvez 780e, Miraflores, Perú
- Facultad de Biologia Marina, Universidad Cientifica del Sur, Lima, Perú
| | - JPY Arnould
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC 3125, Australia
| | - IC Avila
- Grupo de Ecología Animal, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Exactas, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia
| | - S Bengtson Nash
- Environmental Futures Research Institute (EFRI), Griffith University, Nathan Campus, 170 Kessels Road, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - E Campbell
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK
- ProDelphinus, Jose Galvez 780e, Miraflores, Perú
| | - MID Carter
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - T Collins
- Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Blvd., Bronx, NY 10460, USA
| | - RJC Currey
- Marine Stewardship Council, 1 Snow Hill, London, EC1A 2DH, UK
| | - C Domit
- Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Marine Study Center, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Brazil
| | - V Franco-Trecu
- Departamento de Ecología y Evolución, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - MMPB Fuentes
- Marine Turtle Research, Ecology and Conservation Group, Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA
| | - E Gilman
- Pelagic Ecosystems Research Group, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | - RG Harcourt
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - EM Hines
- Estuary & Ocean Science Center, San Francisco State University, 3150 Paradise Dr. Tiburon, CA 94920, USA
| | - AR Hoelzel
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - SK Hooker
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - DW Johnston
- Duke Marine Lab, 135 Duke Marine Lab Road, Beaufort, NC 28516, USA
| | - N Kelkar
- Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Royal Enclave, Srirampura, Jakkur PO, Bangalore 560064, Karnataka, India
| | - JJ Kiszka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Coastlines and Oceans Division, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - KL Laidre
- Polar Science Center, APL, University of Washington, 1013 NE 40th Street, Seattle, WA 98105, USA
| | - JC Mangel
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK
- ProDelphinus, Jose Galvez 780e, Miraflores, Perú
| | - H Marsh
- James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 48111, Australia
| | - SM Maxwell
- School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Bothell, Bothell WA 98011, USA
| | - AB Onoufriou
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
- Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - DM Palacios
- Marine Mammal Institute, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University, Newport, OR, 97365, USA
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97330, USA
| | - GJ Pierce
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Eduardo Cabello 6, 36208 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - LS Ponnampalam
- The MareCet Research Organization, 40460 Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - LJ Porter
- SMRU Hong Kong, University of St. Andrews, Hong Kong
| | - DJF Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, UK
| | - KA Stockin
- Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - D Sutaria
- School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, University of Washington Bothell, Bothell WA 98011, USA
| | - N Wambiji
- Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute, P.O. Box 81651, Mombasa-80100, Kenya
| | - CR Weir
- Ketos Ecology, 4 Compton Road, Kingsbridge, Devon, TQ7 2BP, UK
| | - B Wilson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, UK
| | - BJ Godley
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK
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11
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Shuert CR, Marcoux M, Hussey NE, Watt CA, Auger-Méthé M. Assessing the post-release effects of capture, handling and placement of satellite telemetry devices on narwhal (Monodon monoceros) movement behaviour. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2021; 9:coaa128. [PMID: 33659061 PMCID: PMC7905160 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Animal-borne telemetry devices have become a popular and valuable means for studying the cryptic lives of cetaceans. Evaluating the effect of capture, handling and tagging procedures remains largely unassessed across species. Here, we examine the effect of capture, handling and tagging activities on an iconic Arctic cetacean, the narwhal (Monodon monoceros), which has previously been shown to exhibit an extreme response to extended capture and handling. Using accelerometry-derived metrics of behaviour, including activity level, energy expenditure and swimming activity, we quantify the post-release responses and time to recovery of 19 individuals following capture and tagging activities considering the intrinsic covariates of sex and individual size and the extrinsic covariates of handling time and presence of a 'bolt-on' satellite telemetry device. From accelerometer-derived behaviour, most narwhals appeared to return to mean baseline behaviour (recovery) within 24 hours after release, which was supported by longer-term measures of diving data. None of the covariates measured, however, had an effect on the time individuals took to recover following release. Using generalized additive models to describe changes in behaviour over time, we found handling time to be a significant predictor of activity levels, energy expenditure and swimming behaviour following release. Individuals held for the longest period (>40 min) were found to display the largest effect in behaviour immediately following release with respect to swimming behaviour and activity levels. We also found some support for relationships between activity levels, energy expenditure and swimming activity and two other covariates: sex and the attachment of a bolt-on configuration satellite tags. Our results indicate that narwhals recover relatively quickly following capture, handling and tagging procedures, but we suggest that researchers should minimize handling time and further investigation is needed on how to mitigate potential effects of bolt-on satellite tags in these sensitive species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney R Shuert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Marianne Marcoux
- Arctic Aquatic Research Division, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada
| | - Nigel E Hussey
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Cortney A Watt
- Arctic Aquatic Research Division, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N6, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Marie Auger-Méthé
- Department of Statistics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Institute for the Oceans & Fisheries, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
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12
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Abstract
The growing demand for renewable energy supply stimulates a drastic increase in the deployment rate of offshore wind energy. Offshore wind power generators are usually supported by large foundation piles that are driven into the seabed with hydraulic impact hammers or vibratory devices. The pile installation process, which is key to the construction of every new wind farm, is hindered by a serious by-product: the underwater noise pollution. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art computational methods to predict the underwater noise emission by the installation of foundation piles offshore including the available noise mitigation strategies. Future challenges in the field are identified under the prism of the ever-increasing size of wind turbines and the emerging pile driving technologies.
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13
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Whyte KF, Russell DJF, Sparling CE, Binnerts B, Hastie GD. Estimating the effects of pile driving sounds on seals: Pitfalls and possibilities. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2020; 147:3948. [PMID: 32611185 DOI: 10.1121/10.0001408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the potential effects of pile driving sounds on marine wildlife is essential for regulating offshore wind developments. Here, tracking data from 24 harbour seals were used to quantify effects and investigate sensitivity to the methods used to predict these. The Aquarius pile driving model was used to model source characteristics and acoustic propagation loss (16 Hz-20 kHz). Predicted cumulative sound exposure levels (SELcums) experienced by each seal were compared to different auditory weighting functions and damage thresholds to estimate temporary (TTS) and permanent (PTS) threshold shift occurrence. Each approach produced markedly different results; however, the most recent criteria established by Southall et al. [(2019) Aquat. Mamm. 45, 125-232] suggests that TTS occurrence was low (17% of seals). Predictions of seal density during pile driving made by Russell et al. [(2016) J. Appl. Ecol. 53, 1642-1652] were compared to distance from the wind farm and predicted single-strike sound exposure levels (SELss) by multiple approaches. Predicted seal density significantly decreased within 25 km or above SELss (averaged across depths and pile installations) of 145 dB re 1 μPa2⋅s. However, there was substantial variation in SELss with depth and installation, and thus in the predicted relationship with seal density. These results highlight uncertainty in estimated effects, which should be considered in future assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine F Whyte
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - Debbie J F Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - Carol E Sparling
- SMRU Consulting, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
| | - Bas Binnerts
- TNO, Acoustics and Sonar expertise group, Oude Waalsdorperweg 63, 2597 AK, The Hague, Netherlands
| | - Gordon D Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 8LB, United Kingdom
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14
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Wilson LJ, Harwood J, Booth CG, Joy R, Harris CM. A decision framework to identify populations that are most vulnerable to the population level effects of disturbance. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay J. Wilson
- SMRU Consulting University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | - John Harwood
- SMRU Consulting University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
| | | | - Ruth Joy
- SMRU Consulting Canada Vancouver BC Canada
| | - Catriona M. Harris
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews UK
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15
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Endangered Atlantic Sturgeon in the New York Wind Energy Area: implications of future development in an offshore wind energy site. Sci Rep 2019; 9:12432. [PMID: 31455878 PMCID: PMC6711969 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-48818-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Imminent development of offshore wind farms on the outer continental shelf of the United States has led to significant concerns for marine wildlife. The scarcity of empirical data regarding fish species that may utilize development sites, further compounded by the novelty of the technology and inherent difficulty of conducting offshore research, make identification and assessment of potential stressors to species of concern problematic. However, there is broad potential to mitigate putatively negative impacts to seasonal migrants during the exploration and construction phases. The goal of this study was to establish baseline information on endangered Atlantic Sturgeon in the New York Wind Energy Area (NY WEA), a future offshore development site. Passive acoustic transceivers equipped with acoustic release mechanisms were used to monitor the movements of tagged fish in the NY WEA from November 2016 through February 2018 and resulted in detections of 181 unique individuals throughout the site. Detections were highly seasonal and peaked from November through January. Conversely, fish were relatively uncommon or entirely absent during the summer months (July–September). Generalized additive models indicated that predictable transitions between coastal and offshore habitat were associated with long-term environmental cues and localized estuarine conditions, specifically the interaction between photoperiod and river temperature. These insights into the ecology of marine-resident Atlantic Sturgeon are crucial for both defining monitoring parameters and guiding threat assessments in offshore waters and represent an important initial step towards quantitatively evaluating Atlantic Sturgeon at a scale relevant to future development.
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16
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Graham IM, Merchant ND, Farcas A, Barton TR, Cheney B, Bono S, Thompson PM. Harbour porpoise responses to pile-driving diminish over time. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2019; 6:190335. [PMID: 31312495 PMCID: PMC6599776 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.190335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Estimating impacts of offshore windfarm construction on marine mammals requires data on displacement in relation to different noise levels and sources. Using echolocation detectors and noise recorders, we investigated harbour porpoise behavioural responses to piling noise during the 10-month foundation installation of a North Sea windfarm. Current UK guidance assumes total displacement within 26 km of pile driving. By contrast, we recorded a 50% probability of response within 7.4 km (95% CI = 5.7-9.4) at the first location piled, decreasing to 1.3 km (95% CI = 0.2-2.8) by the final location; representing 28% (95% CI = 21-35) and 18% (95% CI = 13-23) displacement of individuals within 26 km. Distance proved as good a predictor of responses as audiogram-weighted received levels, presenting a more practicable variable for environmental assessments. Critically, acoustic deterrent device (ADD) use and vessel activity increased response levels. Policy and management to minimize impacts of renewables on cetaceans have concentrated on pile-driving noise. Our results highlight the need to consider trade-offs between efforts to reduce far-field behavioural disturbance and near-field injury through ADD use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isla M. Graham
- Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, George Street, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YL, UK
| | - Nathan D. Merchant
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK
| | - Adrian Farcas
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Pakefield Road, Lowestoft NR33 0HT, UK
| | - Tim R. Barton
- Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, George Street, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YL, UK
| | - Barbara Cheney
- Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, George Street, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YL, UK
| | - Saliza Bono
- Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, George Street, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YL, UK
| | - Paul M. Thompson
- Lighthouse Field Station, School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, George Street, Cromarty, Ross-shire IV11 8YL, UK
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17
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Stöber U, Thomsen F. Effect of impact pile driving noise on marine mammals: A comparison of different noise exposure criteria. THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2019; 145:3252. [PMID: 31153340 DOI: 10.1121/1.5109387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Regulators in Europe and in the United States have developed sound exposure criteria. Criteria range from broadband levels to frequency weighted received sound levels. The associated differences in impact assessment results are, however, not yet understood. This uncertainty makes environmental management of transboundary anthropogenic noise challenging and causes confusion for regulators who need to choose appropriate exposure criteria. In the present study, three established exposure criteria frameworks from Germany, Denmark, and the US were used to analyse the effect of impact pile driving at a location in the Baltic Sea on harbor porpoise and harbor seal hearing. The acoustic modeling using MIKE showed that an unmitigated scenario would lead to auditory injury for all three criteria. Despite readily apparent variances in impact ranges among the applied approaches, it was also evident that noise mitigation measures could reduce underwater sound to levels where auditory injuries would be unlikely in most cases. It was concluded that each of the frameworks has its own advantages and disadvantages. Single noise exposure criteria follow the precautionary principle and can be enforced relatively easily, whereas criteria that consider hearing capabilities and animal response movement can improve the accuracy of the assessment if data are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Stöber
- DHI WASY GmbH, Volmerstraße 8, 12489 Berlin, Germany
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18
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Mikkelsen L, Johnson M, Wisniewska DM, van Neer A, Siebert U, Madsen PT, Teilmann J. Long-term sound and movement recording tags to study natural behavior and reaction to ship noise of seals. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:2588-2601. [PMID: 30891202 PMCID: PMC6405890 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of anthropogenic noise on marine fauna is of increasing conservation concern with vessel noise being one of the major contributors. Animals that rely on shallow coastal habitats may be especially vulnerable to this form of pollution.Very limited information is available on how much noise from ship traffic individual animals experience, and how they may react to it due to a lack of suitable methods. To address this, we developed long-duration audio and 3D-movement tags (DTAGs) and deployed them on three harbor seals and two gray seals in the North Sea during 2015-2016.These tags recorded sound, accelerometry, magnetometry, and pressure continuously for up to 21 days. GPS positions were also sampled for one seal continuously throughout the recording period. A separate tag, combining a camera and an accelerometer logger, was deployed on two harbor seals to visualize specific behaviors that helped interpret accelerometer signals in the DTAG data.Combining data from depth, accelerometer, and audio sensors, we found that animals spent 6.6%-42.3% of the time hauled out (either on land or partly submerged), and 5.3%-12.4% of their at-sea time resting at the sea bottom, while the remaining time was used for traveling, resting at surface, and foraging. Animals were exposed to audible vessel noise 2.2%-20.5% of their time when in water, and we demonstrate that interruption of functional behaviors (e.g., resting) in some cases coincides with high-level vessel noise. Two-thirds of the ship noise events were traceable by the AIS vessel tracking system, while one-third comprised vessels without AIS.This preliminary study demonstrates how concomitant long-term continuous broadband on-animal sound and movement recordings may be an important tool in future quantification of disturbance effects of anthropogenic activities at sea and assessment of long-term population impacts on pinnipeds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Johnson
- Sea Mammal Research UnitUniversity of St. AndrewsSt. AndrewsUK
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
| | - Danuta Maria Wisniewska
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
- Hopkins Marine StationStanford UniversityStanfordCalifornia
| | - Abbo van Neer
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research (ITAW)University of Veterinary Medicine HannoverFoundationGermany
| | - Ursula Siebert
- Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research (ITAW)University of Veterinary Medicine HannoverFoundationGermany
| | - Peter Teglberg Madsen
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
- Aarhus Institute for Advanced StudiesAarhus UniversityAarhus CDenmark
| | - Jonas Teilmann
- Department of BioscienceAarhus UniversityRoskildeDenmark
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19
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May R, Masden EA, Bennet F, Perron M. Considerations for upscaling individual effects of wind energy development towards population-level impacts on wildlife. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 230:84-93. [PMID: 30273787 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.09.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The expansion of wind energy poses challenges to policy- and decision-makers to address conflicts with wildlife. Conflicts are associated with impacts of existing and planned projects on wildlife, and associated difficulties of prediction where impacts are subject to considerable uncertainty. Many post-construction studies have demonstrated adverse effects on individuals of various bird and bat species. These effects may come in the form of collision-induced mortality or behavioral or physiological changes reducing the fitness of individuals exposed to wind energy facilities. Upscaling these individual effects to population impacts provides information on the true value of interest from a conservation point of view. This paper identifies methodological issues associated when moving from individual effects to population impacts in the context of wind energy. Distinct methodological approaches to predict population impacts are described using published case studies. The various choices of study design and metrics available to detect significant changes at the population level are further assessed based on these. Ways to derive impact thresholds relevant for decision-making are discussed in detail. Robust monitoring schemes and sophisticated modelling techniques may inevitably be unable to describe the whole complexity of wind and wildlife interactions and the natural variability of animal populations. Still, they will provide an improved understanding of the response of wildlife to wind energy and better-informed policies to support risk-based decision-making. Policies that support the use of adaptive management will promote assessments at the population level. Providing information to adequately balance the development of wind energy with the persistence of wildlife populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- R May
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), P.O. Box 5685 Sluppen, N-7485 Trondheim, Norway.
| | - E A Masden
- Environmental Research Institute, North Highland College-UHI, University of the Highlands and Islands, Ormlie Road, Thurso, Caithness KW14 7EE, UK
| | - F Bennet
- Marine Scotland Science, Marine Laboratory, 375 Victoria Road, Aberdeen AB11 9DB, UK
| | - M Perron
- Nateco AG, Sissacherstrasse 20, CH-4460 Gelterkinden, Switzerland
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20
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Joy R, Wood JD, Sparling CE, Tollit DJ, Copping AE, McConnell BJ. Empirical measures of harbor seal behavior and avoidance of an operational tidal turbine. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2018; 136:92-106. [PMID: 30509846 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.08.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
There is global interest in marine renewable energy from underwater tidal turbines. Due to overlap in animal habitat with locations for tidal turbines, the potential for collisions has led to concern around strike risk. Using data from tagged harbor seals collected before construction and after operation of the SeaGen tidal turbine in Northern Ireland, this study quantifies risks of an operational turbine to harbor seals by taking into account turbine characteristics, tidal state, and seal behavior. We found 68% spatial avoidance (95% C.I., 37%, 83%) by harbor seals within 200 m of the turbine. When additionally accounting for variation in seal occupancy over depth and tidal flows, there is an overall reduction in collision risk from 1.29 to 0.125 seals per tidal cycle (90.3% reduction; (95% C.I., 83%, 98%)) compared to risk calculated under assumptions of uniform habitat use. This demonstrates the need to incorporate environmental conditions to properly assess strike risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Joy
- SMRU Consulting Canada, Suite 510, 1529 6th Avenue West, Vancouver, BC V6J 1R1, Canada; Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
| | - Jason D Wood
- SMRU Consulting USA, PO Box 764, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA
| | - Carol E Sparling
- SMRU Consulting Europe, New Technology Centre, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9SR, Scotland
| | - Dom J Tollit
- SMRU Consulting Canada, Suite 510, 1529 6th Avenue West, Vancouver, BC V6J 1R1, Canada
| | - Andrea E Copping
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 1100 Dexter Ave N, Suite 400, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Bernie J McConnell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit, Scottish Oceans Institute, University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Fife KY16 8LB, Scotland
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21
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Pirotta E, Booth CG, Costa DP, Fleishman E, Kraus SD, Lusseau D, Moretti D, New LF, Schick RS, Schwarz LK, Simmons SE, Thomas L, Tyack PL, Weise MJ, Wells RS, Harwood J. Understanding the population consequences of disturbance. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:9934-9946. [PMID: 30386587 PMCID: PMC6202709 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Managing the nonlethal effects of disturbance on wildlife populations has been a long-term goal for decision makers, managers, and ecologists, and assessment of these effects is currently required by European Union and United States legislation. However, robust assessment of these effects is challenging. The management of human activities that have nonlethal effects on wildlife is a specific example of a fundamental ecological problem: how to understand the population-level consequences of changes in the behavior or physiology of individual animals that are caused by external stressors. In this study, we review recent applications of a conceptual framework for assessing and predicting these consequences for marine mammal populations. We explore the range of models that can be used to formalize the approach and we identify critical research gaps. We also provide a decision tree that can be used to select the most appropriate model structure given the available data. Synthesis and applications: The implementation of this framework has moved the focus of discussion of the management of nonlethal disturbances on marine mammal populations away from a rhetorical debate about defining negligible impact and toward a quantitative understanding of long-term population-level effects. Here we demonstrate the framework's general applicability to other marine and terrestrial systems and show how it can support integrated modeling of the proximate and ultimate mechanisms that regulate trait-mediated, indirect interactions in ecological communities, that is, the nonconsumptive effects of a predator or stressor on a species' behavior, physiology, or life history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Pirotta
- Department of Mathematics and StatisticsWashington State UniversityVancouverWashington
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity College CorkCorkIreland
| | | | - Daniel P. Costa
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaSanta CruzCalifornia
| | - Erica Fleishman
- Department of Environmental Science and PolicyUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCalifornia
- Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation BiologyColorado State UniversityFort CollinsColorado
| | - Scott D. Kraus
- Anderson‐Cabot Center for Ocean LifeNew England AquariumBostonMassachusetts
| | - David Lusseau
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of AberdeenAberdeenUK
| | | | - Leslie F. New
- Department of Mathematics and StatisticsWashington State UniversityVancouverWashington
| | - Robert S. Schick
- Duke UniversityDurhamNorth Carolina
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental ModellingUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
| | - Lisa K. Schwarz
- Institute of Marine SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaSanta CruzCalifornia
| | | | - Len Thomas
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental ModellingUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
| | - Peter L. Tyack
- Sea Mammal Research UnitScottish Oceans InstituteSchool of BiologyUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
| | - Michael J. Weise
- Office of Naval ResearchMarine Mammal & Biology ProgramArlingtonVirginia
| | - Randall S. Wells
- Chicago Zoological Society's Sarasota Dolphin Research Programc/o Mote Marine LaboratorySarasotaFlorida
| | - John Harwood
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental ModellingUniversity of St AndrewsSt AndrewsUK
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22
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Pirotta E, Edwards EWJ, New L, Thompson PM. Central place foragers and moving stimuli: A hidden-state model to discriminate the processes affecting movement. J Anim Ecol 2018; 87:1116-1125. [PMID: 29577275 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Human activities can influence the movement of organisms, either repelling or attracting individuals depending on whether they interfere with natural behavioural patterns or enhance access to food. To discern the processes affecting such interactions, an appropriate analytical approach must reflect the motivations driving behavioural decisions at multiple scales. In this study, we developed a modelling framework for the analysis of foraging trips by central place foragers. By recognising the distinction between movement phases at a larger scale and movement steps at a finer scale, our model can identify periods when animals are actively following moving attractors in their landscape. We applied the framework to GPS tracking data of northern fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, paired with contemporaneous fishing boat locations, to quantify the putative scavenging activity of these seabirds on discarded fish and offal. We estimated the rate and scale of interaction between individual birds and fishing boats and the interplay with other aspects of a foraging trip. The model classified periods when birds were heading out to sea, returning towards the colony or following the closest boat. The probability of switching towards a boat declined with distance and varied depending on the phase of the trip. The maximum distance at which a bird switched towards the closest boat was estimated around 35 km, suggesting the use of olfactory information to locate food. Individuals spent a quarter of a foraging trip, on average, following fishing boats, with marked heterogeneity among trips and individuals. Our approach can be used to characterise interactions between central place foragers and different anthropogenic or natural stimuli. The model identifies the processes influencing central place foraging at multiple scales, which can improve our understanding of the mechanisms underlying movement behaviour and characterise individual variation in interactions with a range of human activities that may attract or repel these species. Therefore, it can be adapted to explore the movement of other species that are subject to multiple dynamic drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Pirotta
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, USA
| | - Ewan W J Edwards
- Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, UK.,Marine Scotland Science, The Scottish Government, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Leslie New
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Washington State University, Vancouver, WA, USA
| | - Paul M Thompson
- Lighthouse Field Station, University of Aberdeen, Cromarty, UK
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23
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Fine-scale harbour seal usage for informed marine spatial planning. Sci Rep 2017; 7:11581. [PMID: 28912473 PMCID: PMC5599608 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11174-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
High-resolution distribution maps can help inform conservation measures for protected species; including where any impacts of proposed commercial developments overlap the range of focal species. Around Orkney, northern Scotland, UK, the harbour seal (Phoca vitulina) population has decreased by 78% over 20 years. Concern for the declining harbour seal population has led to constraints being placed on tidal energy generation developments. For this study area, telemetry data from 54 animals tagged between 2003 and 2015 were used to produce density estimation maps. Predictive habitat models using GAM-GEEs provided robust predictions in areas where telemetry data were absent, and were combined with density estimation maps, and then scaled to population levels using August terrestrial counts between 2008 and 2015, to produce harbour seal usage maps with confidence intervals around Orkney and the North coast of Scotland. The selected habitat model showed that distance from haul out, proportion of sand in seabed sediment, and annual mean power were important predictors of space use. Fine-scale usage maps can be used in consenting and licensing of anthropogenic developments to determine local abundance. When quantifying commercial impacts through changes to species distributions, usage maps can be spatially explicitly linked to individual-based models to inform predicted movement and behaviour.
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Mikkelsen L, Hermannsen L, Beedholm K, Madsen PT, Tougaard J. Simulated seal scarer sounds scare porpoises, but not seals: species-specific responses to 12 kHz deterrence sounds. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:170286. [PMID: 28791155 PMCID: PMC5541550 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.170286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Acoustic harassment devices (AHD) or 'seal scarers' are used extensively, not only to deter seals from fisheries, but also as mitigation tools to deter marine mammals from potentially harmful sound sources, such as offshore pile driving. To test the effectiveness of AHDs, we conducted two studies with similar experimental set-ups on two key species: harbour porpoises and harbour seals. We exposed animals to 500 ms tone bursts at 12 kHz simulating that of an AHD (Lofitech), but with reduced output levels (source peak-to-peak level of 165 dB re 1 µPa). Animals were localized with a theodolite before, during and after sound exposures. In total, 12 sound exposures were conducted to porpoises and 13 exposures to seals. Porpoises were found to exhibit avoidance reactions out to ranges of 525 m from the sound source. Contrary to this, seal observations increased during sound exposure within 100 m of the loudspeaker. We thereby demonstrate that porpoises and seals respond very differently to AHD sounds. This has important implications for application of AHDs in multi-species habitats, as sound levels required to deter less sensitive species (seals) can lead to excessive and unwanted large deterrence ranges on more sensitive species (porpoises).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Line Hermannsen
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Kristian Beedholm
- Zoophysiology, Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Jakob Tougaard
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
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Graham IM, Pirotta E, Merchant ND, Farcas A, Barton TR, Cheney B, Hastie GD, Thompson PM. Responses of bottlenose dolphins and harbor porpoises to impact and vibration piling noise during harbor construction. Ecosphere 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.1793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Isla M. Graham
- Lighthouse Field Station; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; George Street Cromarty Ross-shire IV11 8YL UK
| | - Enrico Pirotta
- Lighthouse Field Station; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; George Street Cromarty Ross-shire IV11 8YL UK
| | - Nathan D. Merchant
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas); Pakefield Road Lowestoft NR33 0HT UK
| | - Adrian Farcas
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas); Pakefield Road Lowestoft NR33 0HT UK
| | - Tim R. Barton
- Lighthouse Field Station; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; George Street Cromarty Ross-shire IV11 8YL UK
| | - Barbara Cheney
- Lighthouse Field Station; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; George Street Cromarty Ross-shire IV11 8YL UK
| | - Gordon D. Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Paul M. Thompson
- Lighthouse Field Station; Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Aberdeen; George Street Cromarty Ross-shire IV11 8YL UK
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26
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Jones EL, Hastie GD, Smout S, Onoufriou J, Merchant ND, Brookes KL, Thompson D. Seals and shipping: quantifying population risk and individual exposure to vessel noise. J Appl Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Esther L. Jones
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling; The Observatory; Buchanan Gardens; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 9LZ UK
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - Gordon D. Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - Sophie Smout
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling; The Observatory; Buchanan Gardens; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 9LZ UK
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - Joseph Onoufriou
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
| | - Nathan D. Merchant
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Aquaculture Science; Lowestoft Suffolk NR33 0HT UK
| | - Kate L. Brookes
- Marine Scotland Science; 375 Victoria Road Aberdeen AB11 9DB UK
| | - David Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit; Scottish Oceans Institute; University of St Andrews; St Andrews KY16 8LB UK
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27
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Aerial low-frequency hearing in captive and free-ranging harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) measured using auditory brainstem responses. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2016; 202:859-868. [PMID: 27796483 PMCID: PMC5099358 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-016-1126-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 09/29/2016] [Accepted: 09/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The hearing sensitivity of 18 free-ranging and 10 captive harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) to aerial sounds was measured in the presence of typical environmental noise through auditory brainstem response measurements. A focus was put on the comparative hearing sensitivity at low frequencies. Low- and mid-frequency thresholds appeared to be elevated in both captive and free-ranging seals, but this is likely due to masking effects and limitations of the methodology used. The data also showed individual variability in hearing sensitivity with probable age-related hearing loss found in two old harbour seals. These results suggest that the acoustic sensitivity of free-ranging animals was not negatively affected by the soundscape they experienced in the wild.
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Russell DJF, Hastie GD, Thompson D, Janik VM, Hammond PS, Scott-Hayward LAS, Matthiopoulos J, Jones EL, McConnell BJ. Avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is limited to pile driving activities. J Appl Ecol 2016; 53:1642-1652. [PMID: 27867217 PMCID: PMC5111737 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2664.12678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
As part of global efforts to reduce dependence on carbon‐based energy sources there has been a rapid increase in the installation of renewable energy devices. The installation and operation of these devices can result in conflicts with wildlife. In the marine environment, mammals may avoid wind farms that are under construction or operating. Such avoidance may lead to more time spent travelling or displacement from key habitats. A paucity of data on at‐sea movements of marine mammals around wind farms limits our understanding of the nature of their potential impacts. Here, we present the results of a telemetry study on harbour seals Phoca vitulina in The Wash, south‐east England, an area where wind farms are being constructed using impact pile driving. We investigated whether seals avoid wind farms during operation, construction in its entirety, or during piling activity. The study was carried out using historical telemetry data collected prior to any wind farm development and telemetry data collected in 2012 during the construction of one wind farm and the operation of another. Within an operational wind farm, there was a close‐to‐significant increase in seal usage compared to prior to wind farm development. However, the wind farm was at the edge of a large area of increased usage, so the presence of the wind farm was unlikely to be the cause. There was no significant displacement during construction as a whole. However, during piling, seal usage (abundance) was significantly reduced up to 25 km from the piling activity; within 25 km of the centre of the wind farm, there was a 19 to 83% (95% confidence intervals) decrease in usage compared to during breaks in piling, equating to a mean estimated displacement of 440 individuals. This amounts to significant displacement starting from predicted received levels of between 166 and 178 dB re 1 μPa(p‐p). Displacement was limited to piling activity; within 2 h of cessation of pile driving, seals were distributed as per the non‐piling scenario. Synthesis and applications. Our spatial and temporal quantification of avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is critical to reduce uncertainty and increase robustness in environmental impact assessments of future developments. Specifically, the results will allow policymakers to produce industry guidance on the likelihood of displacement of seals in response to pile driving; the relationship between sound levels and avoidance rates; and the duration of any avoidance, thus allowing far more accurate environmental assessments to be carried out during the consenting process. Further, our results can be used to inform mitigation strategies in terms of both the sound levels likely to cause displacement and what temporal patterns of piling would minimize the magnitude of the energetic impacts of displacement.
Our spatial and temporal quantification of avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is critical to reduce uncertainty and increase robustness in environmental impact assessments of future developments. Specifically, the results will allow policymakers to produce industry guidance on the likelihood of displacement of seals in response to pile driving; the relationship between sound levels and avoidance rates; and the duration of any avoidance, thus allowing far more accurate environmental assessments to be carried out during the consenting process. Further, our results can be used to inform mitigation strategies in terms of both the sound levels likely to cause displacement and what temporal patterns of piling would minimize the magnitude of the energetic impacts of displacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debbie J F Russell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK; Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Gordon D Hastie
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - David Thompson
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Vincent M Janik
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Philip S Hammond
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
| | - Lindesay A S Scott-Hayward
- Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Jason Matthiopoulos
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health, and Comparative Medicine University of Glasgow Graham Kerr Building Glasgow G12 8QQ UK
| | - Esther L Jones
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK; Centre for Research into Ecological and Environmental Modelling University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9LZ UK
| | - Bernie J McConnell
- Sea Mammal Research Unit University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 8LB UK
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