Examining the association between language, expository discourse and offending behaviour: an investigation of direction, strength and independence

Narrative Discourse in Youth Offenders: Examining Individual Differences

PURPOSE

This study examined narrative discourse in youth offenders, focusing on quality of story retelling, story comprehension, critical thinking, and the use of complex syntax.

METHOD

The participants were 15 incarcerated adolescents, ages 13-18 years (Mage = 16 years). Each was evaluated at their detention center via Zoom, using a standardized language test and language samples that elicited narrative speaking with fables. After retelling a fable, the participant answered questions that examined story comprehension and critical thinking.

RESULTS

Most participants performed below average on the standardized language test and had difficulty on one or more of the language sampling measures. Areas of concern included quality of story retelling, story comprehension, critical thinking, and the use of complex syntax. Had language sampling not been employed, those weaknesses might have been overlooked.

CONCLUSIONS

When evaluating youth offenders, it is important to elicit language samples that can provide detailed information about an adolescent's ability to communicate for genuine purposes. In this regard, the tasks employed in the current study could be helpful to speech-language pathologists in working with youth offenders, enabling them to pinpoint deficits and offer targeted intervention.

Oral language skills, callous and unemotional traits and high-risk patterns of youth offending

Extensive research has associated adolescent delinquent behavior with verbal deficits, yet for some subgroups of youth offenders better verbal ability has been associated with increased risk. This study examined associations between specific oral language skills and established markers of high-risk youth offending comprising callous and unemotional (CU) traits, early age of the first offence, and violent offending. Measures of language, CU traits, anxiety, as well as official youth justice data, were collected for adolescent male offenders and non-offenders (n = 130; aged 13-19 years; 62% youth offenders). Pragmatic language was found to be differentially associated with distinct variants of CU traits based on high/low levels of anxiety. Furthermore, among youth offenders with primary variant (low anxiety) CU traits, more violent offending was associated with better structural language skills, while earlier age of first offence was associated with better pragmatic language skills.

Speech-language pathologists' perspectives of communication strategies for young people in the New Zealand youth justice system

Purpose: Working in the justice system is a new and emerging area for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in New Zealand, both in practice and research. This study explored SLPs' perspectives on: (1) the importance of implementing communication strategies in the New Zealand youth justice system, and (2) the effectiveness and relevance of the strategies employed.Method: A qualitative Phenomenology of Practice research approach was used. Five SLPs working as communication assistants in the New Zealand youth justice system were recruited through non-probability convenience sampling. Semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face or via video conference; these were audio recorded, transcribed, and analysed through an inductive coding process.Result: SLPs' perspectives on the importance of implementing strategies revealed two global themes: Complexities within Communication and Giving Young People a Voice. SLPs' perspectives on the effectiveness and relevance of the strategies used resulted in one global theme: SLP Role Goes Beyond Implementing Communication Strategies Alone.Conclusion: SLPs identified the need for their presence in the justice system due to the complexity of the environment. Participants perceived the current communication strategies were effective in equipping other professionals with skills to communicate with young people who offend. Recommended improvements to further assist young people's understanding were suggested.

Language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in youth offenders: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of language disorder in youth offenders far exceeds rates reported in community samples. Youth involved in the justice system are also at increased risk of a range of psychiatric disorders, including internalizing mental health problems (i.e., anxiety, depression). However, the frequency with which these co-occur in this population is not known. Understanding the co-occurrence of language disorder with anxiety and depression in youth offenders may contribute to more coordinated and targeted support for these vulnerable youth.

AIMS

To explore the co-occurrence of language disorder and anxiety and depression in youth offenders.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

A systematic literature search of six databases (CINAHL, ERIC, Medline, PyscINFO, PubMED, Scopus) was conducted (September 2021) using key search terms relevant to the systematic review question. Study inclusion criteria were: (1) original research published in English; (2) youth up to 21 years of age involved in the justice system; and (3) reported outcomes on language and anxiety and/or depression. All included studies were appraised using the Joanna Briggs Critical Appraisal tool checklist relevant to study design. Due to the heterogeneity of included studies, data synthesis was narrative.

MAIN CONTRIBUTION

Eight studies met the eligibility criteria. A range of measures was used to assess language abilities across samples. Only two studies directly addressed the relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems; both found no significant correlation.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

Although the results did not support a significant relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in youth offenders, the two appear to occur comorbidly as evidenced by heightened rates of both in the included samples. This review highlights the need for more robust studies aimed to better understand this relationship. Stronger evidence may contribute to increased collaborative speech pathology and psychology services which might increase youth offenders' accessibility and engagement in intervention programmes (e.g., cognitive-behaviour therapy; interpersonal skills training; individual counselling).

WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS

What is already known on this subject The markedly high rates of language disorder in youth involved in the justice system have been widely reported. It is also known that externalizing mental health problems often bring youth in contact with the justice system. Though there is some information about the prevalence of internalizing mental health problems in this population, the co-occurrence of language disorder and internalizing mental health problems has not been examined as widely. What this study adds to existing knowledge This study aimed to identify the frequency of co-occurrence of language disorder and anxiety and/or depression in youth offenders. Although the results did not support a significant relationship between language disorder and internalizing mental health problems in this population, results of the review provide evidence of heightened rates of both. This study also provides a summary of the various measures used to assess language and internalizing mental health in youth offenders across the eight studies included in this review. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? It is possible that the tests and sub-tests used to identify language disorders and internalizing mental health problems were not sensitive enough to identify the full extent of youth offenders' needs. Identifying the presence of language disorders and internalizing mental health problems and recognizing the impact these may have on the communication and behaviours of an individual can better inform staff and therapists as they engage and interact with youth in the justice system.

The neurocognitive profiles of justice involved people with foetal alcohol spectrum disorder: A systematic review

Foetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is highly prevalent in criminal justice settings. Despite increased awareness of the neurocognitive deficits among justice-involved individuals with FASD, no systematic evaluation of the literature in the field has been conducted to date. We aimed to conduct a systematic review of the literature on the neurocognitive profiles of justice-involved individuals with FASD, by searching five key electronic databases, dissertations database, and Google scholar, up to January 2021. The findings indicate that when contrasted with comparison groups, justice-involved individuals with FASD display significant impairment in a greater number of neurocognitive domains including intellectual capacity, executive function, language, academic achievements, motor skills, and adaptive living skills. The relatively small number of the studies included in the review, along with the confounding effects of comorbidities among study participants, precludes drawing firm conclusions about the true extent and implications of neurocognitive deficits in this population. To advance the field further, there is an urgent need to conduct robust studies involving larger samples of justice-involved individuals with FASD and suitable comparison groups. Advancing knowledge in the field can have important implications for understanding of the antecedents of offending behaviour in this population, and informing strategies for early identification and intervention.

Design and Validation of the Non-Verbal Immediacy Scale (NVIS) for the Evaluation of Non-Verbal Language in University Professors

Knowledge and awareness of how to use non-verbal language is essential for the educational field. For this reason, the aim of this study was to develop a validation that validly and reliably measures the analysis of non-verbal language in university teachers. Content validation was carried out by applying the Delphi technique and through an exploratory and confirmatory analysis. The validity of understanding is given by the application of the scale to 1316 university teachers between 24 and 67 years of age. The initial data collected through the Delphi technique provided some modifications. The final scale, called Non-verbal immediacy, was composed of a total of 26 items that presented satisfactory adjustments in both comprehension and outcome validity. Confirmatory factor analysis determined three dimensions (kinesics, paralanguage, and proxemics). These factors will be a new element for future lines of research related to the teaching-learning process, as high relationships have been demonstrated between non-verbal language and psychosocial aspects implicit in teaching practice, as well as comprehension and student learning.

A Preliminary Investigation of Social Justice Perceptions Among U.S. Speech-Language Pathologists: Clinical Implications

Purpose The purpose of this survey research is to provide preliminary data regarding speech-language pathologists' (SLPs') perceptions of the role that social justice (SJ) plays in their work. As our professional organizations call us to advocate and communicate with regulatory agencies and legislative bodies to promote quality care for all individuals, this topic has become particularly important at this time. At present, there is a lack of data in peer-reviewed publications within the discipline of communication disorders on SJ and even less regarding the perceptions of SLPs on SJ. Method The survey was sent to American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)-certified SLPs, identified by the ASHA ProFind database, across six U.S. geographic regions, including both urban and rural communities. Four themes were explored through the survey: (a) importance of SJ, (b) awareness of SJ, (c) current practices related to SJ, and (d) barriers to SJ implementation. Results The majority of respondents view SJ as important to the profession (91.2%) and value the work of creating equality among groups (96.0%). Many SLPs are actively involved in implementing SJ principles in their own practice by accepting Medicaid (40.7%), engaging in political outreach (55.0%), and providing transdisciplinary educational outreach (77.9%). Identified barriers to incorporating SJ include time (62.7%), resources (65.6%), and finances (70.0%). Conclusions Working for SJ is important to a majority of the respondents, and various efforts are implemented to create equal opportunities for service to clients. Barriers continue to exist that limit the degree to which SLPs can work toward SJ. A list of actions to be considered in order to promote SJ in the field is provided. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.16584044.

Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) in Young People Leaving Care in England: A Study Profiling the Language, Literacy and Communication Abilities of Young People Transitioning from Care to Independence

Research indicates children and young people in care have a high prevalence of Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) as part of a complex set of vulnerabilities. This study describes the profile of language, literacy and communication abilities of a cohort of care leavers. The language, literacy and communication abilities of 44 young people leaving care between the ages of 16 and 26 years were assessed using standardized measures. Demographic data about the young people was collected along with a survey to key staff to capture their perceptions and experiences of the language and communication abilities of these young people. Ninety percent of the care leavers' language abilities were below average and over 60% met criteria for DLD in combination with literacy difficulties, developmental disorders and social, emotional and mental health difficulties (SEMH). The implications of unidentified DLD on the lives of young people leaving care is discussed. Earlier identification of DLD is advocated to enable services to intervene to facilitate more positive outcomes and life chances for this very vulnerable population.

Developmental language disorders and risk of recidivism among young offenders

BACKGROUND

Although factors such as adverse family background have been widely examined, little is known about the prevalence or potential impact of developmental language disorder (DLD) on risk of recidivism in young people with history of criminal justice system contact.

METHODS

A total of 145 young offenders participated. An adversity score was constructed based on information found in youth justice service records. Data collected included standardised measures of expressive and receptive language, nonverbal IQ and the inventory of callous-unemotional traits. Survival analysis was performed to examine differences in reoffending risk between young offenders with and without DLD.

RESULTS

The cumulative incidence of reoffending within a year of the young person's court order was markedly raised in the DLD group (62%; 95% CI 52, 72) versus the non-DLD group (25%; 95% CI 16, 39). Furthermore, in the final multivariable survival analysis the independent elevation in risk linked with DLD was not greatly attenuated with adjustment for nonverbal IQ, adversity score, age at first offence, number of previous offences and deprivation score. DLD was the most significant predictor with an adjusted hazard ratio of 2.61 (95% CI 1.80, 3.78).

CONCLUSIONS

Young offenders with DLD are more than twice as likely to reoffend than their unaffected offending peers. DLD is a powerful predictor of recidivism above and beyond other known risk factors.

The oral and written narrative language skills of adolescent students in youth detention and the impact of language disorder

BACKGROUND

Unmet language and literacy needs are common among young people who are involved with youth justice systems. However, there is limited research regarding the functional text-level language skills of this population with regard to narrative macrostructure (story grammar) and microstructure (semantics and syntax) elements.

METHODS

In this study, we examined macrostructure and microstructure elements in the oral and written narrative texts of 24 adolescent students of a youth detention centre. The students, who were aged 14- to 17- years, were all speakers of Standard Australian English, and 11 (46%) students met criteria for language disorder (LD).

FINDINGS

When we compared the narratives according to modality of language, the students demonstrated stronger narrative language skills in the written modality compared to the oral. However, when we compared the narratives according to language ability, we found that the impact of LD on inclusion of macrostructure elements was greater in the oral modality, and for microstructure elements, was greater in the written modality. Errors in written conventions were common among both students with and without LD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that both the modality of language as well as the presence of LD should be considered when young people are required to participate in forensic contexts including programs that address educational and rehabilitation needs. Our results indicate a need for consistent text-level language assessment to better identify and respond to functional difficulties within language and literacy. There is potential for speech-language pathology services to enhance comprehensive assessment as well as inform educational and rehabilitation programs for young people who are involved with youth justice systems.

The speech, language and communication needs of rough sleepers in London

BACKGROUND

There is very little awareness of the speech, language and communication needs (SLCN) of rough sleepers. The small amount of documentation that does exist involves a wider group of homeless adults (not just rough sleepers), and reports that communication needs are an area of concern.

AIMS

To investigate: (1) the reported prevalence of SLCN amongst UK nationals recorded on the Combined Homeless and Information Network (CHAIN) as sleeping on the streets of London; (2) whether rough sleepers with reported SLCN differ from those without; and (3) what factors best predict patterns of rough sleeping and accommodation stays.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

A data set of 513 participants was provided by CHAIN, which contained information relating to all new rough sleepers and people with long-term histories of rough sleeping (UK nationals only) recorded by street outreach teams in London between 1 April and 30 June 2013. Also included was data about UK nationals provided with support by the Homelessness and Brain Injury Project. The data set contained information including basic demographics, communication skills, health and social care needs, and institutional background and extended to a 5-year period.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

(1) SLCN data were often not recorded with data available for only 62% of individuals on the CHAIN databases. However, for those with SLCN data, the prevalence of SLCN was significantly higher than for the general population (17.1%; p < 0.001). (2) There were no significant differences between those with and without SLCN on additional risk factors, quarters rough sleeping, accommodation stays or staff-recorded alerts. (3) There was a positive correlation between rough sleeping and additional risk factors for those with SLCN (r = 0.32, p < 0.001) and for those without (r = 0.25, p < 0.001). Regression analysis indicated that additional risk factors were more predictive than SLCN in explaining the number of quarters rough sleeping and accommodation stays.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

SLCN are highly prevalent amongst rough sleepers and significantly greater than for the UK general population. SLCN are not clearly related to rough sleeping behaviour, but the presence of additional risk factors is highly significant in this regard. Homelessness organizations should provide training for staff in SLCN in order to promote better recording of SLCN, inclusive communication and appropriate support to people who are homeless. Further research is also needed to understand better the communication needs of rough sleepers. What this study adds What is already known on the subject There is very little literature concerning the SLCN of rough sleepers, but that which exists suggests that communication needs are an area of concern. There is relatively little awareness of SLCN in practice in this field. What this paper adds to existing knowledge This study is the first to provide information on SLCN recording in this population. It reports large-scale prevalence data on SLCN in rough sleepers, showing a significantly higher risk in this group. Unexpectedly, SLCN did not clearly relate to patterns of rough sleeping and accommodation, but this may be due to the relatively crude data available in routine practice. What are the potential or actual clinical implications of this work? Wider awareness and training on SLCN in the homelessness sector is needed coupled with more systematic and objective assessment of communication in rough sleepers.

Psycholinguistic and socioemotional characteristics of young offenders: Do language abilities and gender matter?

PURPOSE

Previous research demonstrates an association between developmental language disorder (DLD) and criminal offending. International research also implicates alexithymia as being over-represented in forensic samples. This study provides a comprehensive examination of the psycholinguistic and socioemotional profiles of males and females in the youth justice system, with a focus on first-time entrants. In the context of restorative justice (RJ) underpinning youth justice disposals, this allows for informed intervention and identifies those who may be compromised in their ability to effectively engage in certain interventions.

METHODS

Participants (N = 145) from a triage centre and youth offending teams, with a mean age of 15.8, completed a range of standardized psycholinguistic assessments considering non-verbal IQ, expressive and receptive language measures, and literacy. Additionally, socioemotional measures completed included The Alexithymia Scale and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Developmental language disorder was present in 87 participants. Except for the emotional score, no statistically significant gender differences were found. The mean language scores for the DLD group were more than 2.25 standard deviations below the normative mean, and they demonstrated greater literacy difficulties. A high proportion of the group met the criteria for alexithymia/possible alexithymia (60%), and this was not associated with DLD.

CONCLUSIONS

High prevalence values for DLD and socioemotional difficulties, not generally gender-specific, were found. These difficulties have the possibility to compromise a young person's ability to engage in rehabilitative strategies. Language assessment and identification of difficulties, especially DLD, upon entry to the youth justice service, would assist when planning interventions.

Speech-Language Pathology and the Youth Offender: Epidemiological Overview and Roadmap for Future Speech-Language Pathology Research and Scope of Practice

Purpose

This article is concerned with the growing body of international evidence indicating that adolescents in contact with the youth justice system are likely to have severely compromised oral language skills, receptively and expressively. A smaller, but persuasive, literature also points to poor literacy skills in this population. Language and literacy skills underpin academic, social, and vocational success ( C. Snow, 1983 ; P. C. Snow, 2016 ; Snowling & Hulme, 2012 ) and are central to the professional expertise of speech-language pathology as a profession ( P. C. Snow, 2016 ).

Method

In this article, I review the epidemiology of youth offending together with research evidence concerning the language and literacy skills of this population. I outline the major practice and research implications of these findings for speech-language pathology as a profession, considering the “school-to-prison pipeline” via key domains of early years' reading instruction, young people's passage through the justice system, restorative justice processes, and design and delivery of language and literacy interventions for young people on youth justice orders.

Results

Implications for speech-language pathology scope of practice and future research are outlined.

Conclusions

Speech-language pathology as a profession has a significant role to play in advocating for vulnerable young people at each point in the school-to-prison pipeline. This includes strengthening the evidence base concerning speech-language pathology language and literacy interventions and lobbying governments to fund speech-language pathology services to address the complex communication needs of this population, both on community-based and custodial orders.

Language diversity, language disorder, and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder among youth sentenced to detention in Western Australia

BACKGROUND

While studies confirm high prevalence of language disorder among justice-involved young people, little is known about the impact of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) on language among this population. It is also not clear how language skills vary according to language diversity in Australian youth justice settings, where a disproportionate number of justice-involved youth are Aboriginal and may not speak Standard Australian English (SAE) as their first language. Language skills are important to understand, as language disorder and language difference can lead to a mismatch between the communication skills of a young person and the communication skills of the justice workforce with whom they are communicating. In the highly verbal environments that are common to justice systems, language disorder and language difference may result in a young person misunderstanding legal information and expectations placed on them and not being adequately understood by the justice workforce.

METHODS

This study examined the language skills of 98 young people sentenced to detention in Western Australia (WA), who participated in a cross-sectional study examining the prevalence of FASD. Language skills assessed using standardised and non-standardised tasks were analysed by the three major language groups identified: speakers of SAE, Aboriginal English and English as an additional language.

RESULTS

We identified rich diversity of languages, and multilingualism was common. Most young people for whom English was not their first language demonstrated difficulties in SAE competence. Further, nearly one in two young people were identified with language disorder - over half of whom had language disorder associated with FASD.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has documented language diversity and the prevalence of language disorder associated with FASD among a representative sample of youth sentenced to detention in WA. Results underscore the need for the justice workforce to consider language difference when working with justice-involved youth, as well as language disorder and FASD. The findings also demonstrate the need for speech pathology to be embedded as core service in youth justice systems, working in collaboration with local cultural and language advisors and accredited interpreters. This can better enable appropriate identification of and response to communication and associated rehabilitation needs of young people navigating youth justice systems.