Association of testosterone therapy with disease progression in older males with COVID-19

Testosterone Replacement Therapy and Risk of COVID-19 and Effect of COVID-19 on Testosterone's Treatment Effect

Context

Whether circulating testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol levels or testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) affects the risk of COVID-19 and whether COVID-19 affects response to TRT remains unknown.

Objective

The study evaluated whether baseline testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol levels or TRT are associated with risk of developing COVID-19 and whether COVID-19 affects treatment response to TRT.

Methods

Among 5204 men, aged 45 to 80 years, with hypogonadism in the TRAVERSE trial, 379 developed COVID-19. We compared baseline and on-treatment hormone levels, and safety and efficacy in participants with and without COVID-19 diagnosis.

Results

Neither baseline nor on-treatment testosterone, estradiol, and dihydrotestosterone levels prior to COVID-19 differed significantly between men with and without COVID-19 diagnosis. Incidence of COVID-19 was similar in participants randomized to TRT or placebo groups (3-year Kaplan-Meier incidence 8.0% in TRT and 8.6% in placebo group, P = .823). Incidences of COVID-19-related hospitalizations (38.5% vs 32.8%, P = .222) and deaths (12.8% vs 8.9%, P = .247) were similar in the TRT and placebo groups. Changes in hypogonadal symptoms, libido, energy, and hemoglobin/hematocrit in response to TRT were attenuated in testosterone-treated men who developed COVID-19. Incidences of major adverse cardiovascular events, venous thromboembolism, and acute kidney injury were similar in those with COVID-19 diagnosis and those without.

Conclusion

In men with hypogonadism and cardiovascular disease (CVD) or increased risk of CVD, baseline and pre-COVID-19 on-treatment testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, and estradiol levels were similar in those who developed COVID-19 and those who did not. TRT did not affect the risk of COVID-19. COVID-19 attenuated the treatment response to TRT.

Hypopituitarism and COVID-19

PURPOSE

This review aims to collect and examine recent research findings regarding hypopituitarism and COVID-19, focusing on the virus's impact on the pituitary gland and the outcomes for infected patients with hormonal deficiencies.

METHODS

Literature review using PubMed (pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov). The search included the following terms: "COVID19" in combination with "Pituitary" and "Hypopituitarism".

RESULTS

Many studies have aimed to evaluate the function of the pituitary gland in infected patients, revealing variable degrees of deficiencies. The results are very heterogenous mostly because many different tests and hormonal cut-off have been adopted. It is unclear whether primary virus damage or the inflammatory response is responsible for these hormonal alterations. Interestingly, pituitary defects may persist long after the initial infection, possibly contributing to the "Long COVID syndrome". However, data on the recovery of pituitary function and long-term follow-up are not yet available. On the other hand, although findings are not consistent, patients with hypopituitarism may be at a higher risk for COVID-19 infection rate, complications, and mortality.

CONCLUSION

The COVID-19 pandemic presented challenges for endocrinologists. The endocrine system appears to be involved in both the acute phase of infection and the recovery period. Hypopituitarism can be a consequence of SARS-COV-2 infection, and patients with existing hypopituitarism may face higher risks of complications. It is advisable to educate these patients on how to adjust their replacement therapies. Long-term follow-up data on pituitary function after recovery from COVID-19 are needed.

Is SARS-CoV-2-induced disease a decisive factor influencing testosterone in males? Findings from a case-control ex post facto study

BACKGROUND

Whether the observed lower total testosterone (tT) levels in male patients with COVID-19 are caused by a direct impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection or are collateral phenomena shared by other systemic inflammatory conditions has not yet been clarified.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the independent role of COVID-19 in reducing circulating tT levels in men.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We compared demographic, clinical, and hormonal values of patients with laboratory confirmed COVID-19 admitted during the first wave of the pandemic with a cohort of consecutive male patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) of the same academic center because of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) but without SARS-CoV-2 infection and no previous history of COVID-19. Linear regression model tested the independent impact of COVID-19 on circulating tT levels. Logistic regression model was used to test predictors of death in the entire cohort.

RESULTS

Of 286 patients with COVID-19, 70 men had been admitted to the ICU ( = cases) and were compared to 79 patients equally admitted to ICU because of severe ARDS but negative for SARS-CoV-2 infection and without previous history of COVID-19 ( = controls). Controls were further grouped into noninfective (n = 49) and infective-ARDS (n = 30) patients. At baseline, controls were older (p = 0.01) and had more comorbidities (p < 0.0001). Overall, cases admitted to ICU had significantly lower circulating tT levels compared to controls (0.9 nmol/L vs. 2.1 nmol/L; vs. 1.2 nmol/L; p = 0.03). At linear regression, being negative for COVID-19 was associated with higher tT levels (Coeff: 2.13; 95% confidence interval - CI 0.71-3.56; p = 0.004) after adjusting for age, BMI, comorbidities and IL-6 levels. Only age and IL-6 levels emerged to be associated with higher risk of death regardless of COVID-19 status.

CONCLUSIONS

This case-control ex post facto study showed lower tT levels in men with COVID-19 compared to those without COVID-19 despite both groups have been equally admitted to ICU for severe ARDS, thus suggesting a possible direct impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection toward circulating tT levels and a consequent more severe clinical outcome.

Men, testosterone and Covid-19

Men have more severe Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) outcomes and higher mortality rates than women, and it was suggested that testosterone levels might promote severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and Covid-19 severity. However, clinical studies have not supported this theory. Studies have consistently shown that serum testosterone concentrations during acute Covid-19 in men are inversely proportional to the inflammatory cytokines and severity of illness. It is likely that lower testosterone concentrations in this setting are a result of acute Covid-19 illness on the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis. Clinical trials that attempted to lower testosterone concentrations further or block androgen signaling acutely during Covid-19 in men did not result in improved Covid-19 outcomes. Additionally, pre-existing male hypogonadism, diagnosed before Covid-19 pandemic, was found to be a risk factor for hospitalization from Covid-19. In this review, we also discuss the preclinical and mechanistic studies that have evaluated the role of androgens in SARS-CoV-2 infection and illness. Finally, long-term consequences of Covid-19 on male reproductive health are reviewed. SARS-CoV-2 virus is known to infiltrate testis and induce orchitis in men, but it is unclear if Covid-19 leads to an increase in incidence of male hypogonadism.

The Complex Interplay between Serum Testosterone and the Clinical Course of Coronavirus Disease 19 Pandemic: A Systematic Review of Clinical and Preclinical Evidence

Since the beginning of the coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) pandemic, efforts in defining risk factors and associations between the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), clinical, and molecular features have initiated. After three years of pandemic, it became evident that men have higher risk of adverse outcomes. Such evidence provided the impetus for defining the biological fundaments of such a gender disparity. Our objective was to analyze the most recent literature with the aim of defining the relationship between COVID-19 and fertility, in particular, we assessed the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and testosterone in a systematic review of literature from December 2019 (first evidence of a novel coronavirus in the Hubei province) until March 2022. As a fundamental basis for understanding, articles pertaining preclinical aspects explaining the gender disparity (n=9) were included. The main review categories analyzed the risk of being infected with SARS-CoV-2 according to testosterone levels (n=5), the impact of serum testosterone on outcomes of COVID-19 (n=23), and the impact SARS-CoV-2 on testosterone levels after infection (n=19). Preclinical studies mainly evaluated the relation between angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and its androgen-mediated regulation, articles exploring the risk of COVID-19 according to testosterone levels were few. Although most publications evaluating the effect of COVID-19 on fertility found low testosterone levels after the infection, follow-up was short, with some also suggesting no alterations during recovery. More conclusive findings were observed in men with low testosterone levels, that were generally at higher risk of experiencing worse outcomes (i.e., admission to intensive care units, longer hospitalization, and death). Interestingly, an inverse relationship was observed in women, where higher levels of testosterone were associated to worse outcomes. Our finding may provide meaningful insights to better patient counselling and individualization of care pathways in men with testosterone levels suggesting hypogonadism.

Testosterone and Covid-19: An update

There is overwhelming evidence to suggest that male gender is at a higher risk of developing more severe Covid-19 disease and thus having poorer clinical outcomes. However, the relationship between testosterone (T) and Covid-19 remains unclear with both protective and deleterious effects on different aspects of the disease suggested. Here, we review the current epidemiological and biological evidence on the role of testosterone in the process of SARS-CoV-2 infection and in mediating Covid-19 severity, its potential to serve as a biomarker for risk stratification and discuss the possibility of T supplementation as a treatment or preventative therapy for Covid-19.

Testosterone in males with COVID-19: a 12-month cohort study

BACKGROUND

Male patients with COVID-19 have been found with reduced serum total testosterone (tT) levels and with more severe clinical outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To assess total testosterone (tT) levels and the probability of recovering eugonadal tT levels during a minimum 12-month timespan in a cohort of men who have been followed over time after the recovery from laboratory-confirmed COVID-19.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Demographic, clinical and hormonal values were collected for the overall cohort. Hypogonadism was defined as tT ≤9.2 nmol/l. The Charlson Comorbidity Index was used to score health-significant comorbidities. Descriptive statistics was used to compare hormonal levels at baseline versus 7-month (FU1) versus 12-month (FU2) follow-up, respectively. Multivariate cox proportional hazards regression model was used to identify the potential predictors of eugonadism recovery over time among patients with hypogonadism at the time of infection.

RESULTS

Of the original cohort of 286 patients, follow-up data were available for 121 (42.3%) at FU1 and 63 (22%) patients at FU2, respectively. Higher median interquartile range (IQR) tT levels were detected at FU2 (13.8 (12.3-15.3) nmol/L) versus FU1 (10.2 [9.3-10.9] nmol/L) and versus baseline (3.6 [3.02-4.02] nmol/L) (all p < 0.0001), whilst both LH and E₂ levels significantly decreased over the same time frame (all p ≤ 0.01). Circulating IL-6 levels further decreased at FU2 compared to FU1 levels (19.3 vs. 72.8 pg/ml) (p = 0.02). At multivariable cox regression analyses, baseline tT level (HR 1.19; p = 0.03 [1.02-1.4]) was independently associated with the probability of tT level normalization over time, after adjusting for potential confounders.

CONCLUSIONS

Circulating tT levels keep increasing over time in men after COVID-19. Still, almost 30% of men who recovered from COVID-19 had low circulating T levels suggestive for a condition of hypogonadism at a minimum 12-month follow-up.

[Prostate cancer, androgen deprivation, and risk of COVID-19 infection : A systematic review and meta-analysis]

INTRODUCTION

Male gender has been shown to be a risk factor for COVID-19 infection, and men are more likely to develop severe disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) on the incidence of infection and severity of SARS-CoV-2 in prostate cancer patients.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed after searching PubMed, Scopus, and ClinicalTrial.org databases, between January 2020 and March 2022. Analyses were interpreted through forest plots for the following parameters: risk of infection, hospitalization, intensive care admission, and SARS-CoV-2-related death, with random or fixed-effects models.

RESULTS

Fifteen articles were included in the systematic review and ten in the meta-analysis. Seven studies evaluated risk of infection in patients on ADT: OR=1.11 (95 % IC : [0.48-2.58] ; P=0.81). Six studies evaluated the risk of hospitalization in patients on ADT: TDA : OR=1.58 (95 % IC : [0.94-2.64] ; P=0.08). Seven studies evaluated risk of ICU admission in patients on ADT: OR=0.90 (95 % IC : [0.71-1.13] ; P=0.37). Nine studies evaluated mortality risk in patients on ADT: OR=1.07 (95 % IC : [0.61-1.87] ; P=0.82).

CONCLUSION

ADT does not protect against SARS-CoV-2 in prostate cancer patients, nor does it protect against hospitalization, ICU admission, or mortality. These results remain questionable given the retrospective nature of the majority of studies included in our meta-analysis.