Functionally impaired follicular helper T cells induce regulatory B cells and CD14+ human leukocyte antigen-DR- cell differentiation in non-small cell lung cancer

Strategies for the enhancement of IL-21 mediated antitumor activity in solid tumors

Solid tumors significantly impact global health, necessitating enhanced prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment approaches. Tumor immunotherapy, notably through programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) and programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), offers new hope to patients with advanced tumors, although many still do not benefit. Interleukin-21 (IL-21), a cytokine produced by certain immune cells, performs various biological functions by activating the JAK/STAT signaling pathway. Currently, recombinant IL-21 demonstrates promising antitumor activity and acceptable toxicity in several clinical trials. However, challenges such as side effects, off-target reactions, and a short half-life limit the effectiveness of cytokine-based immunotherapies. Therefore, researching enhanced IL-21 treatment strategies in solid tumors is crucial. Integrating IL-21 with various treatment modalities, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, additional cytokines, vaccines, or radiotherapy, is essential for improving response rates and prolonging patient survival. This review explores the specific mechanisms of IL-21 in prevalent high-incidence tumors, examines improved strategies for IL-21 in solid tumors, and aims to provide a theoretical basis for developing targeted treatment strategies.

Role of the Crosstalk B:Neoplastic T Follicular Helper Cells in the Pathobiology of Nodal T Follicular Helper Cell Lymphomas

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL), the most common form of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, originates from follicular helper T (Tfh) cells and is notably resistant to current treatments. The disease progression and maintenance, at least in early stages, are driven by a complex interplay between neoplastic Tfh and clusters of B-cells within the tumor microenvironment, mirroring the functional crosstalk observed inside germinal centers. This interaction is further complicated by recurrent mutations, such as TET2 and DNMT3A, which are present in both Tfh cells and B-cells. These findings suggest that the symbiotic relationship between these 2 cell types could represent a therapeutic vulnerability. This review examines the key components and signaling mechanisms involved in the synapses between B-cells and Tfh cells, emphasizing their significant role in the pathobiology of AITL and potential as therapeutic targets.

[Progress of IL-21 and Tfh Mediated Immunotherapy in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer]

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a prevalent and aggressive global malignancy. Conventional surgical treatments, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and targeted therapies often fall short in halting disease progression due to inherent limitations, resulting in suboptimal prognosis. Despite the advent of immunotherapy drugs offering new hope for NSCLC treatment, current efficacy remains insufficient to meet all patient needs. Therefore, actively exploring novel immunotherapeutic approaches to further reduce mortality rates in NSCLC patients has become a crucial focus of NSCLC research. This article aims to systematically review the anti-tumor effects of interleukin-21 and follicular helper T cells in NSCLC immunotherapy by summarizing and analyzing relevant literatures from both domestic and international sources, as well as exploring the potential for enhancing NSCLC treatment prospects through immune checkpoint regulation via immunotherapeutic means.
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Metabolic pathway-based subtyping reveals distinct microenvironmental states associated with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma outcomes

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a biologically and clinically heterogeneous disease that requires personalized clinical treatment. Assigning patients to different risk categories and cytogenetic abnormality and genetic mutation groups has been widely applied for prognostic stratification of DLBCL. Increasing evidence has demonstrated that dysregulated metabolic processes contribute to the initiation and progression of DLBCL. Metabolic competition within the tumor microenvironment is also known to influence immune cell metabolism. However, metabolism- and immune-related stratification has not been established. Here, 1660 genes involved in 84 metabolic pathways were selected and tested to establish metabolic clusters (MECs) of DLBCL. MECs established based on independent lymphoma datasets distinguished different survival outcomes. The CIBERSORT algorithm and EcoTyper were applied to quantify the relative abundance of immune cell types and identify variation in cell states for 13 lineages comprising the tumor micro environment among different MECs, respectively. Functional characterization showed that MECs were an indicator of the immune microenvironment and correlated with distinctive mutational characteristics and oncogenic signaling pathways. The novel immune-related MECs exhibited promising clinical prognostic value and potential for informing DLBCL treatment decisions.

A cuproptosis-related lncRNA signature predicts the prognosis and immune cell status in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Introduction

The incidence of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), one of the most prevalent tumors, is increasing rapidly worldwide. Cuproptosis, as a new copper-dependent cell death form, was proposed recently. However, the prognosis value and immune effects of cuproptosis-related lncRNAs (CRLs) have not yet been elucidated in HNSCC.

Methods

In the current study, the expression pattern, differential profile, clinical correlation, DNA methylation, functional enrichment, univariate prognosis factor, and the immune effects of CRLs were analyzed. A four-CRL signature was constructed using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) algorithm.

Results

Results showed that 20 CRLs had significant effects on the stage progression of HNSCC. Sixteen CRLs were tightly correlated with the overall survival (OS) of HNSCC patients. Particularly, lnc-FGF3-4 as a single risk factor was upregulated in HNSCC tissues and negatively impacted the prognosis of HNSCC. DNA methylation probes of cg02278768 (MIR9-3HG), cg07312099 (ASAH1-AS1), and cg16867777 (TIAM1-AS1) were also correlated with the prognosis of HNSCC. The four-CRL signature that included MAP4K3-DT, lnc-TCEA3-1, MIR9-3HG, and CDKN2A-DT had a significantly negative effect on the activation of T cells follicular helper and OS probability of HNSCC. Functional analysis revealed that cell cycle, DNA replication, and p53 signal pathways were enriched.

Discussion

A novel CRL-related signature has the potential of prognosis prediction in HNSCC. Targeting CRLs may be a promising therapeutic strategy for HNSCC.

T follicular helper cells in cancer

T follicular helper (Tfh) cells provide essential help to B cells for effective antibody-mediated immune responses. Although the crucial function of these CD4⁺ T cells in infection and vaccination is well established, their involvement in cancer is only beginning to emerge. Increased numbers of Tfh cells in Tfh cell-derived or B cell-associated malignancies are often associated with an unfavorable outcome, whereas in various solid organ tumor types of non-lymphocytic origin, their presence frequently coincides with a better prognosis. We discuss recent advances in understanding how Tfh cell crosstalk with B cells and CD8⁺ T cells in secondary and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS) enhances antitumor immunity, but may also exacerbate immune-related adverse events (irAEs) such as autoimmunity during immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and cancer immunotherapy.

The depths of PD-1 function within the tumor microenvironment beyond CD8+ T cells

Programmed cell death-1 (PD-1; CD279) is a cell surface receptor that is expressed in both innate and adaptive immune cells. The role of PD-1 in adaptive immune cells, specifically in CD8+ T cells, has been thoroughly investigated but its significance in other immune cells is yet to be well established. This review will address the role of PD-1 based therapies in enhancing non-CD8+ T cell immune responses within cancer. Specifically, the expression and function of PD-1 in non-CD8+ immune cell compartments such as CD4+ T helper cell subsets, myeloid cells and innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) will be discussed. By understanding the immune cell specific function of PD-1 within tissue resident innate and adaptive immune cells, it will be possible to stratify patients for PD-1 based therapies for both immunogeneic and non-immunogeneic neoplastic disorders. With this knowledge from fundamental and translational studies, PD-1 based therapies can be utilized to enhance T cell independent immune responses in cancers.

The Regulation between CD4+CXCR5+ Follicular Helper T (Tfh) Cells and CD19+CD24hiCD38hi Regulatory B (Breg) Cells in Gastric Cancer

Purpose

T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and regulatory B (Breg) cells are reported to play essential roles in humoral immunity, especially in inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. Hence, we sought to investigate the involvement of CXCR5⁺CD4⁺ Tfh cells and CD19⁺CD24^hiCD38^hi Breg cells in gastric cancer.

Methods

The blood samples were obtained from 36 gastric cancer patients and 18 healthy individuals. The percentage of Tfh cells (Tfh%) and Breg cells (Breg%) was detected via flow cytometry, while IL-21, IL-10, and CXCL13 levels were examined with ELISA. The association between them and clinical parameters of patients was also assessed. The in vitro Tfh-B cell coculture experiments were performed for six days, and then, Tfh%, Breg%, and cytokines were valued by flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively.

Results

Tfh%, Breg%, and CXCL13 level were significantly increased among gastric cancer patients. Moreover, higher Tfh% was associated with lymphatic metastasis, patients' worse outcomes and Breg%. Tfh differentiation and CXCL13 were upregulated by cocultured B cells in vitro, while Tfh cells seem to not participate in Breg cell differentiation from B cells.

Conclusion

Altogether, increased Tfh and Breg cells could be involved in immune suppression in gastric cancer. Moreover, B cell may be a potential regulator for Tfh differentiation, while Tfh cells had no significant effects on the regulation of Breg cells.

Subtype Classification, Immune Infiltration, and Prognosis Analysis of Lung Adenocarcinoma Based on Pyroptosis-Related Genes

The effect of pyroptosis-related genes (PRGs) on the tumor microenvironment (TME) in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains unclear. Thus, this study is aimed at evaluating the prognostic value of PRGs in patients with LUAD and to elucidate their role in the TME and their effect on immunotherapy. Transcriptomic and clinical data were obtained from the Cancer Genome Atlas and the Gene Expression Omnibus databases (GSE3141, GSE31210). Patients with LUAD were classified using consistent clustering, and the differences in the TME for each type were determined using the ESTIMATE and CIBERSORT algorithms. PRGs were screened using univariate regression analysis, and a prognostic risk model was constructed using LASSO regression analysis. The tumor mutational burden and the tumor immune dysfunction and exclusion algorithms were used to predict therapeutic sensitivity in LUAD patients. Then, we evaluated the potential therapeutic interventions using the GDSC database. LUAD patients in cluster 2 had significantly shorter overall survival and progression-free survival rates, lower immune scores, and higher infiltration of T follicular helper cells than those in cluster 1. We used five PRGs to classify patients with LUAD into different risks groups and found that the high-risk group is sensitive to immunotherapy; however, its immune-related pathways were inhibited, which may be related to tumor metabolic reprogramming. Lastly, we identified several potential therapeutic drugs for application in low-risk patients who were less sensitive to immunotherapy. Overall, our findings showed that PRGs can be used to predict prognosis and may aid in the development of personalized therapeutic strategies in LUAD patients.

"Mechanisms of induction of regulatory B cells in the tumour microenvironment and their contribution to immunosuppression and pro-tumour responses"

The presence of tumour-infiltrating immune cells was originally associated with the induction of anti-tumour responses and good a prognosis. A more refined characterization of the tumour microenvironment has challenged this original idea and evidence now exists pointing to a critical role for immune cells in the modulation of anti-tumour responses and the induction of a tolerant pro-tumour environment. The coordinated action of diverse immunosuppressive populations, both innate and adaptive, shapes a variety of pro-tumour responses leading to tumour progression and metastasis. Regulatory B cells have emerged as critical modulators and suppressors of anti-tumour responses. As reported in autoimmunity and infection studies, Bregs are a heterogeneous population with diverse phenotypes and different mechanisms of action. Here we review recent studies on Bregs from animal models and patients, covering a variety of types of cancer. We describe the heterogeneity of Bregs, the cellular interactions they make with other immune cells and the tumour itself, and their mechanism of suppression that enables tumour escape. We also discuss the potential therapeutic tools that may inhibit Bregs function and promote anti-tumour responses.

The functional role of miRNAs in inflammatory pathways associated with intestinal epithelial tight junction barrier regulation in IBD

Inflammatory bowel disease – Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis – is an immune-mediated chronic disorder with still not fully elucidated complex mechanisms of pathogenesis and pathophysiology. Intestinal epithelial barrier (IEB) dysregulation is one of the major underlying mechanisms of inflammatory process induction in IBD. Proper IEB integrity is maintained to a large extent by intercellular tight junctions, the function of which can be modified by many molecules, including miRNAs. MiRNAs belong to noncoding and non-messenger RNAs, which can modulate gene expression by binding predicted mRNAs.

In this review, we summarize and discuss the potential role of miRNAs in the regulation of inflammatory signaling pathways affecting the function of the intestinal epithelial barrier in IBD, with particular emphasis on therapeutic potentials. The aim of the review is also to determine the further development directions of the studies on miRNA in the modulation of the intestinal epithelial barrier in IBD.

ARL14 as a Prognostic Biomarker in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Purpose

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. The mechanisms underlying NSCLC initiation and progression require further investigation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of ADP ribosylation factor-like GTPase 14 (ARL14) related to the progression of NSCLC.

Patients and Methods

We analyzed the correlation between clinical characteristics and ARL14 expression using data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Kaplan–Meier analysis was conducted to evaluate the prognostic value of ARL14 in NSCLC. Functions of ARL14 were identified by enrichment analysis. The relationship between ARL14 expression and immune cell infiltration was also studied. Furthermore, ARL14 expression was examined using immunohistochemistry, and its clinical significance was analyzed in 120 patients with NSCLC.

Results

Our study revealed that the expression level of ARL14 in patients with NSCLC was higher than that in normal tissues. Using TCGA data, higher ARL14 expression in lung adenocarcinoma was associated with residual tumor (P = 0.017), while it was associated with age (P = 0.003) and N stage (P = 0.009) in lung squamous cell carcinoma. Similar results were obtained from 120 patients with NSCLC. High ARL14 expression was associated with poor overall survival and progression-free survival in NSCLC. Multivariate analysis revealed that ARL14 was an independent risk factor for patients with NSCLC. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that ARL14 was related to the occurrence and development of tumors.

Conclusion

Increased ARL14 expression was considerably correlated with poor survival in NSCLC, and it might be a promising prognostic biomarker for NSCLC.

Comprehensive Analyses of the Infiltrating Immune Cell Landscape and Its Clinical Significance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Immunotherapy has gradually played a significant role in treating cancer over the past 10 years. Meanwhile, significant connections have been found between infiltrating immune cells and prognosis, as well as the development of immunotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Thus, analyses of the immune cell landscape are urgently needed for the future development of immunotherapy in HCC.

Methods

Expression data of HCC and normal liver tissue were searched and downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas. The fraction of various immune cells was estimated by CIBERSORT, which is a computational analysis tool. Comparisons of the fractions of 22 types of immune cells were performed between HCC and normal tissues, as well as survival analyses and clinical significance. xCell was used to validate the results.

Results

The fractions of 12 types of immune cells, including follicular helper T (Tfh) cells, monocytes, M0, and M2 macrophages, were significantly different between tissues. In survival analyses, higher fractions of Tfh cells (P=0.037), M0 (P=0.001), and M2 macrophages (P=0.045) were associated with a poorer prognosis, and monocytes with a better prognosis (P=0.040). Furthermore, a higher fraction of M0 macrophages (P=0.001), lower fraction of monocytes (P=0.031), and M2 macrophages (P=0.018) were found as risk factors of a poorer histological grade of HCC. Only M0 macrophages showed a significant association with the clinical stage of HCC. Meanwhile, xCell showed monocytes and M2 macrophages significantly reduced in tumor tissues, which validated the results.

Conclusion

Tfh cells, monocytes, M0 and M2 macrophages may play an indicator role in carcinogenesis, progression, and clinical outcomes of HCC. Our research can serve as a reference contributing to future immunotherapy strategies of HCC.

The prognostic landscape of tumor-infiltrating immune cells in lung squamous cell carcinoma

Background

Exploring novel biomarkers and developing effective therapeutic strategies can improve the prognosis of lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) in the future. The prognostic value of tumor-infiltrating immune cells (TICs) in solid tumors has been extensively studied. However, the landscape of TICs involved in the prognosis of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), especially in LUSC, remains unclear and should be systematically investigated.

Methods

This retrospective study analyzed the immune-related transcriptional profiles of 490 LUSC patients from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) cohort. Using the CIBERSORT method, TICs were evaluated and examined for their association with overall survival (OS) in LUSC.

Results

Out of the 27 TICs, 14 were correlated with prognosis in LUSC. A novel prognostic model characterized by fewer memory B cells and more central memory CD8 T cells, regulatory T cells (Tregs), and plasmacytoid dendritic cell (pDC) infiltration predicted poor OS in LUSC with high accuracy. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year areas under the curve (AUC) were 0.95, 0.98, and 0.96, respectively, in the training cohort. This finding was further validated in the validation cohort, where the 1-, 3-, and 5-year AUCs were 0.95, 0.98, and 0.95, respectively.

Conclusions

These findings may provide more effective prognostic biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for the immunotherapy of LUSC.

Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes in the immunotherapy era

The clinical success of cancer immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has refocused attention on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) across cancer types. The outcome of immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in cancer patients has been linked to the quality and magnitude of T cell, NK cell, and more recently, B cell responses within the tumor microenvironment. State-of-the-art single-cell analysis of TIL gene expression profiles and clonality has revealed a remarkable degree of cellular heterogeneity and distinct patterns of immune activation and exhaustion. Many of these states are conserved across tumor types, in line with the broad responses observed clinically. Despite this homology, not all cancer types with similar TIL landscapes respond similarly to immunotherapy, highlighting the complexity of the underlying tumor-immune interactions. This observation is further confounded by the strong prognostic benefit of TILs observed for tumor types that have so far respond poorly to immunotherapy. Thus, while a holistic view of lymphocyte infiltration and dysfunction on a single-cell level is emerging, the search for response and prognostic biomarkers is just beginning. Within this review, we discuss recent advances in the understanding of TIL biology, their prognostic benefit, and their predictive value for therapy.

The Role of Regulatory B Cells in Health and Diseases: A Systemic Review

Equivalent to regulatory T cells, a novel B cell populace, called regulatory B cells (Bregs), has been found to exert a negative immune regulatory role. These subsets of cells account for 0.5% of human B cells from the periphery that expand after activation upon certain stimuli depending on the nature of the microenvironment and provide a variety of Breg cell phenotypes. The increasing number of suppressive mechanisms attributed to Bregs suggests that these immune cells play many roles in immune regulation. Bregs have been confirmed to play a role in host defense mechanisms of healthy individuals as well as they play pathologic and protective roles in diseases or other conditions. Accumulating evidence reported that Bregs have a role in autoimmune and infectious diseases to lower inflammation, and in cancer to attenuate antitumor immune responses, thereby to promote cancer growth and metastasis. More recently, Bregs are also found to be involved in conditions like transplantation for transplant tolerance, during pregnancy to create an immune-privileged uterine environment and during early neonate life. Herein, the review summarizes recent findings aimed to provide understanding on the Breg cells, in the hope to gain insight on the general overview, development, mechanism of activation, and action of Bregs as well as their potential roles in health and diseases.

Immune cell landscape analysis reveals prognostic immune cells and its potential mechanism in squamous cell lung carcinoma

Background

Squamous cell lung carcinoma (LUSC) was closely associated with smoking which was known to have a distant immunosuppression effect. In this study, we aimed to explore the relationship between immune cells and clinical outcomes of LUSC patients with smoking history.

Methods

The immune cell infiltration and RNA expression profiles of LUSC patients were collected from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Then, the correlation between immune cell infiltration and clinical characteristics was explored. According to the level of immune cell infiltration, LUSC patients with smoking history were divided into high or low group to screen the differentially expressed lncRNAs and mRNAs. The prediction of target genes was performed by miRanda. Finally, the prognostic value of a certain signature was confirmed in an independent dataset.

Results

Higher abundance of tumor-infiltrating T follicular helper (Tfh) cells together with a lower abundance of resting memory CD4 T cells had been found in LUSC current reformed smokers for ≤15 years and current smoking patients. Moreover, Tfh cell infiltration was not only associated with better overall survival (OS) but also varied from different degrees of TNM stage. Low expression of lncRNA PWRN1 and its potential regulating genes DMRTB1, PIRT, APOBEC1, and ZPBP2 were associated with better OS. Combining PWRN1 and four regulating genes as a signature, patients with higher-level expression of the signature had shorter survival time in not only the TCGA but also in the GEO dataset.

Conclusions

It was found that Tfh cells presented higher infiltration in LUSC current reformed smokers for ≤15 years and current smokers, while resting memory CD4 T cells had lower infiltration. The signature consisting of PWRN1 as well as its predicted targeted mRNAs was dysregulated in different levels of Tfh cell infiltration and might indicate patients' OS.

Transcriptional Profiles of Long Non-coding RNA and mRNA in Sheep Mammary Gland During Lactation Period

Sheep milk and related products have been growing in popularity around the world in recent years. However, the sheep milk industry is limited by low milk yield, and the molecular regulators of ovine lactation remain largely unknown. To investigate the transcriptomic basis of sheep lactation, RNA-Sequencing was used to explore the expression profiles of lncRNA and mRNA of the mammary gland in Hu sheep at three key time points during the lactation stage: 5 days before the expected date of parturition perinatal period (PP), 6 days after parturition early lactation (EL), and 25 days after parturition peak lactation (PL). A total of 1111, 688, and 54 differentially expressed (DE) lncRNAs as well as 1360, 660, and 17 DE mRNAs were detected in the EL vs PP, PL vs PP, and PL vs EL comparisons, respectively. Several prominent mRNAs (e.g., CSN1S1, CSN1S2, PAEP, CSN2, CSN3, and COL3A1) and lncRNAs (e.g., LNC_018483, LNC_005678, LNC_012936, and LNC_004856) were identified. Functional enrichment analysis revealed that several DE mRNAs and target genes of DE lncRNAs were involved in lactation-related pathways, such as MAPK, PPAR, and ECM-receptor interaction. This study enhances our understanding of how transcriptomic profiles change during the lactation period and pave the way for future studies examining sheep lactation.

IL-21 mediates microRNA-423-5p /claudin-5 signal pathway and intestinal barrier function in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic and recurrent nonspecific inflammatory disorders, including Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the persistent inflammation of intestinal mucosa caused by immune disorders, barrier dysfunction may be an essential cause of the pathogenesis of IBD. Therefore, exploring the mechanism is very important to clarify the pathogenesis of IBD. In our research, we provided evidence of IL-21 function in IBD. The junction complex protein claudin-5 may be a downstream gene of the IL-21. Anti-IL-21 administrated prevented DSS-simulative colitis via recovering claudin-5 expression in the human colonic epithelial cells. Meanwhile, we described that miR-423-5p could be involved in IL-21/ claudin-5 pathway by regulating NF-κB/MAPKs/JNK signaling pathway, which may provide a new therapeutic target for IBD.

Immune microenvironment composition in non-small cell lung cancer and its association with survival

Objectives

In non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the immune system and possibly its composition affect survival. In this in silico study, the immune infiltrate composition in NSCLC patients was evaluated.

Methods

Gene expression data of tumors from early NSCLC patients were obtained from Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO). With CIBERSORT, 22 immune cell fractions were estimated.

Results

The immune infiltrate of 1430 pretreatment NSCLC patients contained mostly plasma cells, macrophages and CD8 T cells. Higher fractions of resting mast and CD4 T-helper cells were associated with longer overall survival (OS) (HR = 0.95, P < 0.01; HR = 0.98, = 0.04, respectively) and higher fractions of M2 macrophages and active dendritic cells with shorter survival (HR = 1.02, P = 0.03; HR = 1.03, P = 0.05, respectively). Adenocarcinoma patients with survival data (n = 587) showed higher fractions of resting mast and resting CD4 T cells, and lower M0 macrophages than squamous cell carcinoma (n = 254), which were associated with OS (HR = 0.95, P = 0.04; HR = 0.97, P = 0.01; HR = 1.03, P = 0.01, respectively). Fractions of memory B cells, naïve CD4 T cells and neutrophils had different associations with survival depending on the subtype. Smokers had had higher fractions of regulatory T cell, follicular helper T cell, neutrophil and M2 macrophage, which were associated with shorter survival (HR = 1.3, P < 0.01; HR = 1.13, P = 0.02; HR = 1.09, P = 0.03; HR = 1.04, P = 0.02, respectively).

Conclusion

Pretreatment differences in immune cell composition in NSCLC are associated with survival and depend on smoking status and histological subtype. Smokers' immune composition is associated with lower survival.

Tumor microenvironment characterization identifies two lung adenocarcinoma subtypes with specific immune and metabolic state

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a vital component of tumor tissue. Increasing evidence suggests their significance in predicting outcomes and guiding therapies. However, no studies have reported a systematic analysis of the clinicopathologic significance of TME in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). Here, we inferred tumor stromal cells in 1184 LUAD patients using computational algorithms based on bulk tumor expression data, and evaluated the clinicopathologic significance of stromal cells. We found LUAD patients showed heterogeneous abundance in stromal cells. Infiltration of stromal cells was influenced by clinicopathologic features, such as age, gender, smoking, and TNM stage. By clustering stromal cells, we identified 2 clinically and molecularly distinct LUAD subtypes with immune active and immune repressed features. The immune active subtype is characterized by repressed metabolism and repressed proliferation of tumor cells, while the immune repressed subtype is characterized by active metabolism and active proliferation of tumor cells. Differentially expressed gene analysis of the two LUAD subtypes identified an immune activation signature. To diagnose TME subtypes practically, we constructed a TME score using principal component analysis based on the immune activation signature. The TME score predicted TME subtypes effectively in 3 independent datasets with areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves of 0.960, 0.812, and 0.819, respectively. In conclusion, we proposed 2 clinically and molecularly distinct LUAD subtypes based on tumor microenvironment that could be valuable in predicting clinical outcome and guiding immunotherapy.

IL‑21/IL‑21R inhibit tumor growth and invasion in non‑small cell lung cancer cells via suppressing Wnt/β‑catenin signaling and PD‑L1 expression

Lung cancer is considered to be one of the world's deadliest diseases, with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounting for 85% of all lung cancer cases. The present study aimed to investigate the role and underlying mechanisms of interleukin-21 (IL-21), and its receptor IL-21R, in NSCLC. Lung tissues and blood samples of NSCLC were used to measure IL-21, IL-21R and programmed death 1 ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression using ELISA, western blot and immunohistochemistry analyses. Following treatment with different doses of IL-21, the proliferation, invasion and migration of human NSCLC cell line A549 was evaluated using a cell counting kit-8, colony formation, Transwell and scratch wound healing assays, respectively. Additionally, IL-21R and PD-L1 expression in A549 cells was detected using western blot analysis and immunofluorescence. IL-21R silencing was subsequently used to investigate its effects in cell proliferation, invasion and migration. PD-L1, IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) expression were measured. Finally, Wnt/β-catenin signaling expression was evaluated using western blot analysis following treatment with IL-21. Cells were then treated with lithium chloride (LiCl), which is an agonist of Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and the levels of PD-L1, IL-1β and TNF-α were detected. The results revealed that IL-21 and IL-21R expression in the lung tissues and blood samples of patients with NSCLC were decreased, while PD-L1 expression was increased, compared with normal tissues or healthy controls. Treatment of A549 cells with IL-21 upregulated IL-21R expression, downregulated PD-L1 and inhibited cell growth and metastasis in a dose-dependent manner. Following IL-21R silencing, the effects of IL-21 treatment were reversed, suggesting that IL-21 acted on A549 cells through binding to IL-21R. In addition, the results demonstrated that IL-21 treatment reduced the expression levels of proteins associated with the Wnt/β-catenin signaling, whereas activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling with the LiCl agonist upregulated PD-L1, IL-1β and TNF-α expression. In conclusion, the IL-21/IL-21R axis reduced the growth and invasion of NSCLC cells via inhibiting Wnt/β-catenin signaling and PD-L1 expression. The present results may provide a novel molecular target for NSCLC diagnosis and therapy.

Functionally impaired follicular helper T cells induce regulatory B cells and CD14+ human leukocyte antigen-DR- cell differentiation in non-small cell lung cancer

Non‐small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) represents one of the most common and aggressive cancers worldwide, as it typically displays irreversible progression and poor prognosis. Interaction between programmed death 1 (PD‐1) and its ligand, PD‐L1, plays important roles in tumor immunology. Follicular helper T (Tfh) cells have characteristically high PD‐1 expression; thus, in the present study, we investigated the role of circulating Tfh cells and their correlation with disease‐free survival after tumor resection in NSCLC. We found significantly higher number of Tfh cells but lower serum interleukin (IL)‐21 levels in NSCLC patients, especially in those with advanced stage (III and IV), indicating that the function of Tfh cells to produce IL‐21 was impaired. Further analysis showed that the increase in Tfh cells was attributable to an expansion of the PD‐1⁺‐Tfh2 and PD‐1⁺‐Tfh17 subtypes. Functional analysis showed that Tfh cells from NSCLC patients induced the differentiation of regulatory B cells and CD14⁺ human leukocyte antigen (HLA)‐DR⁻ cells. Interestingly, the number of Tfh1 subtypes in NSCLC patients was negatively correlated with disease‐free survival after tumor resection. In short, the high number and abnormal function of Tfh cells could cause further immunosuppression and lead to tumor development in NSCLC. Rescuing Tfh functions therefore represents a potential therapeutic strategy in NSCLC.