Early Cognitive Precursors of Children's Mathematics Learning Disability and Persistent Low Achievement: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study

Predicting Adolescent Arithmetic and Reading Dysfluency

The long-term negative consequences of learning difficulties have been acknowledged. Nonetheless, research is still scarce regarding the prediction of adolescent difficulties in reading and arithmetic skills. The present study examines at which age phase and with what kind of constellation of parent- and child-related factors can adolescent difficulties in arithmetic and/or reading fluency be successfully predicted. A sample of Finnish children (N = 941) was followed from the onset of kindergarten (at age 6) through adolescence (ages 13-16). Children's cognitive skills were assessed in kindergarten, and arithmetic and reading fluency were examined in Grades 2, 4, 6, 7, and 9. Parents' self-report data were collected on their own learning difficulties and educational level. Scoring below the 16th percentile in both Grades 7 and 9 was set as the criterion for dysfluency either in reading (n = 87, 9.2%) or arithmetic (n = 84, 8.9%). Adolescent dysfluency in both domains was moderately predicted by parental measures and kindergarten cognitive skills. Although adding school-age fluency measures clearly increased both the predictability and specificity of models up to Grade 4 for both skills, knowledge of letters' names, counting, and visuospatial skills remained unique predictors of dysfluency in adolescence.

The effect of a 2-month abacus training on students with developmental dyscalculia

Developmental dyscalculia (DD) is a specific mathematics learning disorder, characterized by the atypical development of number sense, arithmetic calculation, and atypical development of brain structures and brain activations in core brain regions for number processing. The current study examined the intervention effect of a 2-month abacus training on DD students. Results showed that compared with the non-trained control group, the DD students with abacus training showed higher scores in number sense, calculation, and sustained attention abilities. Additionally, a larger percentage of students in the abacus group showed improvements in the DD screening tasks compared to the control group. The current finding indicated that abacus training or abacus courses can be used as a tool for further DD intervention.

Concurrent and predictive associations between executive function and numerical skills in early childhood

The importance of early numerical and executive function (EF) skills is well-established, with each skill set positively and specifically predicting later mathematics achievement, income, postsecondary education, and more. Less is known, however, about the relations between EF and numerical skills. Therefore, we examined the concurrent and predictive relations between EF and numerical skills in preschoolers to third graders (N = 205; 4.67-8.75 years of age; 43.9% female; 51.2% White non-Hispanic, 18% multiracial, 6.3% Hispanic, 12.2% Black, 2% American Indian/Alaska Native, 4.9% Asian, 1% not otherwise listed). We found positive concurrent relations between EF and all six numerical skills examined: nonsymbolic magnitude comparison, verbal counting, numerical literacy, count on, non-rote counting, and numerical problem solving. There were unidirectional predictive relations between EF and four of the six numerical skills after controlling for covariates and prior performance on the skill of interest. Bidirectional relations were found only for EF and nonsymbolic magnitude comparison. We also found that the concurrent relation between EF and count on was higher for children with typical versus persistently low mathematics achievement. All other concurrent and predictive relations were similar for children with typical and persistently low mathematics achievement. Overall, these findings show that the relations between EF and numerical skills are both pervasive and nuanced, such that they vary by timing of assessments (i.e., concurrent or predictive) and numerical skill. These results can inform future theoretical models on the role of EF in numerical development and have practical implications for designing interventions targeting these skill sets in early childhood.

Arithmetic fluency and number processing skills in identifying students with mathematical learning disabilities

BACKGROUND

Students with mathematical learning disabilities (MLD) struggle with number processing skills (e.g., enumeration and number comparison) and arithmetic fluency. Traditionally, MLD is identified based on arithmetic fluency. However, number processing skills are suggested to differentiate low achievement (LA) from MLD.

AIMS

This study investigated the accuracy of number processing skills in identifying students with MLD and LA, based on arithmetic fluency, and whether the classification ability of number processing skills varied as a function of grade level.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

The participants were 18,405 students (girls = 9080) from Grades 3-9 (ages 9-15). Students' basic numerical skills were assessed with an online dyscalculia screener (Functional Numeracy Assessment -Dyscalculia Battery, FUNA-DB), which included number processing and arithmetic fluency as two factors.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analyses supported a two-factor structure of FUNA-DB. The two-factor structure was invariant across language groups, gender, and grade levels. Receiver operating characteristics curve analyses indicated that number processing skills are a fair classifier of MLD and LA status across grade levels. The classification accuracy of number processing skills was better when predicting MLD (cut-off < 5 %) compared to LA (cut-off < 25 %).

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Results highlight the need to measure both number processing and arithmetic fluency when identifying students with MLD.

Phonological awareness and RAN contribute to Chinese reading and arithmetic for different reasons

The present study investigated how phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming (hereafter, RAN), simultaneously contributed to Chinese reading and arithmetic fluency. Specifically, we proposed a new hypothesized mechanism that processing speed would mediate the relations of RAN with Chinese reading and arithmetic fluency. One hundred and forty-five Chinese children at the fifth grade were administered with a battery of measures, including three phonological processing measures, character reading, and whole number computation, as well as nonverbal IQ, and vocabulary knowledge. Path analyses revealed that phonological awareness and RAN were uniquely related to character reading and arithmetic fluency, while phonological memory was not significantly correlated to either character reading or arithmetic fluency, after controlling for age, nonverbal IQ, and vocabulary knowledge. Further analysis indicated that processing speed demonstrated a mediating effect on the importance of RAN in character reading, rather than in arithmetic fluency. Results underscore the potential importance of phonological awareness and RAN in character reading and arithmetic fluency, and the mediating role of processing speed in RAN to promote Chinese character reading fluency.

How active coping influences school-aged children's rapid automatized naming: A chain mediation model involving subjective vitality and aerobic fitness

Rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been proven to be important for students' academic performance, but it remains unclear whether and how dealing with stressors (e.g., active coping) is associated with children's development of RAN. To examine this question, this research views the growth of RAN as a cross-stressor adaptation process and proposes that school-aged children may build up adapted and modified stress response systems through active coping in dealing with stressors and cognitive tasks. Based on the broaden-and-build theory and the mind-body unity theory, we explored the impact of active coping on RAN and hypothesized that subjective vitality and aerobic fitness chain mediated the relationship between active coping and RAN. We used two Likert-like scales to measure active coping and subjective vitality, used a number-reading task to measure RAN, and used the progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER) test to measure aerobic fitness. We recruited 303 elementary students in grades 3-5 in China. Results showed that both subjective vitality and aerobic fitness mediated the impact of active coping on time for RAN. Further, the chain indirect effect of active coping→subjective vitality→aerobic fitness→time for RAN was significant, but the reversed chain mediation was not significant. General resources (e.g., subjective vitality) have been shown to be relatively more important than simple physical resources (e.g., aerobic fitness) for RAN. These preliminary findings may contribute to both the cross-stressor-adaptation and active coping literature and have potential implications for improving RAN in school-aged children.

Executive Functions Training for 7- to 10-Year-Old Students With Mathematics Difficulty: Instant Effects and 6-Month Sustained Effects

Executive function (EF) training has shown promise for remedying general EF deficiencies faced by students with mathematics difficulty (MD) and for improving their performance. However, latest research also suggests that the instant and sustained effects of EF training remain inconsistent. In this study, 32 Chinese students with MD, age 7 to 10 years, were recruited and randomly divided into two groups: the training group (n = 16, 25 training sessions) and the control group (n = 16). Both groups took a pretest, a posttest, and a follow-up test (after 6 months) on EF, fluid intelligence, and mathematics skills. In the posttest, the training group's performance significantly improved in 2-back, number shifting, letter shifting, calculation fluency, and mathematics problem-solving tasks, but not in Stroop, Flanker, 1-back, numerical operations, and colored progressive matrices tasks. In the follow-up test after 6 months, the effects of training only on the 2-back and letter shifting tasks were sustained. The effect on the numerical operations task appeared; however, the effects on number shifting, calculation fluency, and mathematics problem-solving tasks disappeared. The results of this study show that EF training has instant effects of improving EF and mathematics skills of students with MD, and 6-month sustained effects on some of the improved skills. However, for fluid intelligence, the effects may be very limited.

Subtypes of mathematical learning disability and their antecedents: A cognitive diagnostic approach

Using cognitive diagnostic modeling (CDM), this study identified subtypes of mathematics learning disability (MLD) based on children's numerical skills and examined the language and spatial precursors of these subtypes. Participants were 99 MLD children and 420 low achievers identified from 1839 Finnish children (966 boys) who were followed from preschool (age 6) to fourth grade (2007-2011). Five subtypes were identified: the arithmetic fluency deficit only subtype, the counting deficit subtype, the pervasive deficit subtype, the symbolic deficit subtype, and the counting and concept deficit subtype. Different subtypes depended on different constellations of language and spatial deficits. Findings highlight the effectiveness of CDM in identifying MLD subtypes and underscore the importance of understanding the specific deficits and antecedents of the subtypes.

Contributions of the psychology of mathematical cognition in early childhood education using apps

Educational interventions are necessary to develop mathematical competence at early ages and prevent widespread mathematics learning failure in the education system as indicated by the results of European reports. Numerous studies agree that domain-specific predictors related to mathematics are symbolic and non-symbolic magnitude comparison, as well as, number line estimation. The goal of this study was to design 4 digital learning app games to train specific cognitive bases of mathematical learning in order to create resources and promote the use of these technologies in the educational community and to promote effective scientific transfer and increase the research visibility. This study involved 193 preschoolers aged 57–79 months. A quasi-experimental design was carried out with 3 groups created after scores were obtained in a standardised mathematical competence assessment test, i.e., low-performance group (N = 49), high-performance group (N = 21), and control group (N = 123). The results show that training with the 4 digital learning app games focusing on magnitude, subitizing, number facts, and estimation tasks improved the numerical skills of the experimental groups, compared to the control group. The implications of the study were, on the one hand, provided verified technological tools for teaching early mathematical competence. On the other hand, this study supports other studies on the importance of cognitive precursors in mathematics performance.

Cognitive factors and educational placement affecting mathematical attainment in middle school students with mild intellectual disability

The study investigated the relationship between mathematics achievement, cognitive and motor skills, and general intellectual ability among seventy 10-12 years old students with mild intellectual disability (MID) attending regular school (n = 30) and special school (n = 40). The purpose of the study was to identify the critical deficits teachers need to consider when teaching mathematics at the secondary school level. The students attending regular schools had significantly higher fluid intelligence scores (p = 0.036), but we found no difference in the total score of the math achievement test. Special school students were more eager to use assistance and aids when solving math problems (p = 0.040). The study indicated significant associations between basic mathematical skills, verbal and visuospatial processing, and motor skills. Thus, it is essential to compensate for the delay of students' cognitive development to improve their basic mathematical skills and, in general, mathematical performance. The educational placement affects the willingness or ability to seek academic help when solving mathematical problems.

Development, Reliability, and Validity of the Preschool Learning Skills Scale: A Tool for Early Identification of Preschoolers at Risk of Learning Disorder in Mainland China

Background

Early identification of children at risk of learning disorders (LD) may mitigate the adverse effects of delayed intervention by guiding children to receive preventive services at an earlier age. However, there is no assessment tool for the early identification of children at risk of LD in Mainland China. Therefore, this study aimed to create a Chinese version of the Preschool Learning Skills Scale and investigate its validity and reliability.

Methods

Firstly, a pilot scale was designed based on literature review and expert review. Secondly, a pre-survey of the pilot scale was conducted. In phase 3, a formal survey was carried out to test the reliability and validity of the scale by involving 2,677 preschool children from 7 kindergartens. Data were collected using a checklist for demographic characteristics, the preschool learning skills scale, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P), and Conners' Rating Scales.

Results

The final scale included 38 items under seven factors. The reliability and validity tests confirmed that the Cronbach's alpha, split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability coefficients of the scale were 0.946, 0.888, and 0.941, respectively. The Spearman correlations of factor-total score ranged from 0.685 to 0.876. The results of criterion-related validity showed a direct and significant association between the preschool learning skills scale with the BRIEF-P (r = 0.641, P &lt; 0.001) and the cognitive problems factor of Conners' Rating Scales (r = 0.564, P &lt; 0.001). The model had a good fit (χ2/df = 3.489, RMSEA = 0.047, RMR = 0.024, CFI = 0.912, TLI = 0.900, and IFI = 0.912). Multigroup confirmatory factor analysis supported the structural and measurement invariance on the preschool learning skills scale across gender and grade.

Conclusions

The developed preschool learning skills scale has good reliability and validity, indicating that the scale can be used to identify preschool children at risk of LD and can be recommended for use in clinical research and practice.

Domain-General Cognitive Skills in Children with Mathematical Difficulties and Dyscalculia: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Mathematical performance implies a series of numerical and mathematical skills (both innate and derived from formal training) as well as certain general cognitive abilities that, if inadequate, can have a cascading effect on mathematics learning. These latter skills were the focus of the present systematic review. Method: The reviewing process was conducted according to the PRISMA statement. We included 46 studies comparing school-aged children’s performance with and without math difficulties in the following cognitive domains: processing speed, phonological awareness, short- and long-term memory, executive functions, and attention. Results: The results showed that some general cognitive domains were compromised in children with mathematical difficulties (i.e., executive functions, attention, and processing speed). Conclusions: These cognitive functions should be evaluated during the diagnostic process in order to better understand the child’s profile and propose individually tailored interventions. However, further studies should investigate the role of skills that have been poorly investigated to date (e.g., long-term memory and phonological awareness).

Development of Social Skills in Kindergarten: A Latent Class Growth Modeling Approach

Social skills acquired during early childhood are often the foundation for success later in life. Using a nationwide survey dataset in Japan, this study aims to explore the multiple growth trajectories of social skills among children in kindergarten by using a latent class growth modeling approach. It also examines whether, and to what extent, the home-rearing environment at early age predict trajectories of social skills development. Children in this study were assessed on social skills at three waves, four home-rearing environment dimensions (human stimulation, social stimulation, avoidance of punishment, and social support for parenting) and demographic background were measured at wave 1. The results indicated that three distinct growth trajectories of social skills existed during kindergarten: high increase levels, moderate increase levels, and decreased levels. The avoidance of punishment and children's gender significantly predicted the growth trajectories of social skills. Thus, the results suggest that more attention should be paid to the home-rearing environment and boys.

How physical activity, fitness, and motor skills contribute to math performance: Working memory as a mediating factor

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to examine whether physical activity, fitness, and motor skills have an indirect association with math performance via cognitive outcomes and if so, through which aspects of cognition?

METHODS

This study comprised 311 6th-9th grade adolescents (12-17 years [M age = 14.0 years], 59% girls) from seven schools throughout Finland in 2015. Math performance was measured via a teacher-rated math achievement and the Basic Arithmetic test. Cognitive functions were measured by broad cognitive test battery. Physical activity was assessed with a self-reported questionnaire and a hip-worn accelerometer. Aerobic fitness was estimated using a maximal 20-m shuttle run test, muscular fitness with curl-up and push-up tests, and motor skills with a 5-leaps test and a throwing-catching combination test. Structural equation modeling was applied to examine the associations.

RESULTS

In both boys and girls, motor skills had a positive indirect association with math outcomes through visuospatial working memory. Among girls, muscular fitness had a positive indirect association with math outcomes through visuospatial working memory. Aerobic fitness was positively associated with math achievement, but the indirect path via cognition was not observed. Self-reported physical activity had a borderline indirect positive association with math outcomes through visuospatial working memory. Accelerometer-based physical activity did not correlate with math performance.

CONCLUSION

Motor skills and muscular fitness had indirect positive associations with math performance, mediated by visuospatial working memory. The results give support to the viewpoints that the connections between motor skills, fitness, and physical activity to academic skills are mediated via specific cognitive skills.

Visual-spatial skills contribute to Chinese reading and arithmetic for different reasons: A three-wave longitudinal study

Previous literature has revealed that visual-spatial processing is associated with both reading and arithmetic. Yet the strength of their relations and the reasons why visual-spatial processing contributes to reading and arithmetic remain ambiguous. The current study focused on two types of visual-spatial skills that recent evidence has suggested are crucial in children's early reading and arithmetic development: visual-perceptual and spatial visualization skills. With an interval of 6 months, we assessed 104 Hong Kong kindergarten children's visual-spatial skills, word reading, arithmetic performance, and vocabulary knowledge at Wave 1; orthographic awareness, basic number knowledge, and number line estimation at Wave 2; and Chinese word reading and arithmetic performance at Wave 3. Correlational analysis showed that both visual-perceptual and spatial visualization skills were associated with later Chinese word reading and arithmetic performance. Further mediation analyses revealed that spatial visualization skills, rather than visual-perceptual skills, contributed to Chinese word reading via orthographic awareness and also predicted arithmetic performance through basic number knowledge. However, number line estimation failed to mediate any relations of visual-spatial skills with children's arithmetic abilities. The results suggest the importance of visual-spatial processing in Chinese word reading and mathematics, with spatial visualization contributing to reading and mathematics for different reasons.

Transitions between socio-emotional and cognitive vulnerability profiles from early to middle childhood: a population study using multi-agency administrative records

Adult psychosocial difficulties, including psychiatric disorders, are often preceded by childhood psychosocial vulnerabilities, presenting critical windows of opportunity for preventative intervention. The present study aimed to identify longitudinal patterns (representing transitions between profiles) of childhood socio-emotional and cognitive vulnerability in the general population from early to middle childhood, in relation to key risk factors (e.g. parental mental illness and offending). Data were drawn from the New South Wales Child Development Study, which combines intergenerational multi-agency administrative records with cross-sectional assessments using data linkage methods. We analysed data from childhood assessments of socio-emotional and cognitive functioning at two time points (ages 5-6 and 10-11 years) that were linked with administrative data from government departments of health, child protection, and education for 19,087 children and their parents. Latent profile analyses were used to identify socio-emotional and cognitive profiles at each time point, and latent transition analyses were used to determine the probability and potential moderators of transition between profiles at each age. Three developmental profiles were identified in early childhood, reflecting typically developing, emotionally vulnerable, and cognitively vulnerable children, respectively; two profiles were identified in middle childhood, reflecting typically developing and vulnerable children. Child's sex, child protection services contact, parental mental illness, and parental offending influenced children's transitions between different vulnerability profiles, with the strongest effects for parental mental illness and child protection contact. Early detection of vulnerable children and factors promoting resilience are important steps in directing future health and social policy, and service planning for vulnerable children.