The Role of Motor Competences in Predicting Working Memory Maintenance and Preparatory Processing

Music boosts the recovery of attention after mental fatigue in healthy young male subjects: A human auditory event-related potential study

Daily life faces continuous cognitive tasks. Several methods could lessen cognitive fatigue including music. To find out how music functions in recovering cognitive fatigue, twenty-seven participants were randomly assigned to the rest group (N = 12) and the music group (N = 15). To evaluate the effects of Mozart K488 music on attention function after a continuous cognitively demanding task. Participants completed subjective questionnaires and the contingent negative variation (CNV) task before fatigue, after fatigue, and after the rest/musical intervention. EEG and ECG data were also collected during the experiment. The results showed that 5 min of Mozart K488 music resulted in improved CNV task performance in the musical intervention group. For EEG data, recoveries of the initial CNV and terminal CNV amplitude in Cz and CPz electrodes were observed and compared with the values after Mental Fatigue, which music increased the iCNV and tCNV. Alpha-ERD was lower after listening to music than after resting. Moreover, during music playing, compared to other brain regions the EEG alpha power of participants was significantly high in the central frontal region. This study demonstrates a short-term musical intervention can effectively boost the recovery of attention after Mental Fatigue.

Sex Differences in Gross Motor Competence in Italian Children Aged 3-11 Years: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study

Background/Objectives: In recent years, there has been a significant increase in studies examining motor learning during preschool age and the early years of primary school. This study aimed to investigate sex differences in gross motor competence among Italian children aged 3-11 years. Methods: A convenience sample of 8500 children (mean age = 8.37 years, SD = 1.98; 50% female) was included in this cross-sectional study. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Italian version of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3, which evaluates locomotion and ball control skills. A Linear Mixed Model was applied to examine the interaction between sex and age, with school included as a random intercept and BMI as a covariate. Results: The results revealed a consistent trend of boys achieving significantly higher total scores for global motor competence (p < 0.001) across all age groups, except at age 11. Boys also demonstrated superior performance in ball control skills (p < 0.005) at all ages. In contrast, no significant differences were observed for locomotion skills overall. However, girls outperform boys in locomotor skills at ages 6, 7, and 8 (p < 0.001), with this trend disappearing by age 9. Conclusions: These findings highlight important sex-related differences in gross motor development during childhood, influenced by both biological and environmental factors. The results underscore the need for targeted interventions in educational settings to provide equitable opportunities for motor skill development, particularly for girls. Enhancing the quality of physical education and addressing gender disparities can support the acquisition of essential motor skills and promote lifelong physical activity.

Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Neurophysiological Indices of Working Memory Maintenance in Young Adults

Working memory is a crucial component of cognitive performance, supporting well-being, mental health, and successful personal and academic endeavors. Working memory performance and capacity peak during young adulthood, a critical period for managing increased life challenges. Emerging evidence indicates that cardiorespiratory fitness holds potential to enhance working memory performance; however, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. This study examined the association between cardiorespiratory fitness and neurophysiological markers of cognitive control during a task requiring working memory maintenance. Young healthy adults (N = 112) completed a submaximal ergometer test to estimate cardiorespiratory fitness. Working memory maintenance was assessed using the Sternberg task under low and high cognitive loads, while event-related potentials (ERP) components (cue-P300, CNV, and probe-P300) were recorded. In addition, an immediate free recall task was administered. Path analysis revealed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness was significantly associated with better accuracy in the Sternberg task exclusively under high cognitive load (β = 0.21, p = 0.03). In the high load condition, higher negativity of the contingent negative variation (CNV) amplitude was significantly associated with higher fitness levels (β = -0.20, p = 0.03) and with better performance on the immediate free recall task (β = -0.23, p = 0.02), suggesting enhanced neurophysiological preparatory processes and dominance of proactive cognitive control strategy in fitter individuals. Cue-P300 and probe-P300 did not show significant associations with cardiorespiratory fitness nor working memory performance. These findings underscore the role of proactive cognitive control in mediating the benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness on cognitive performance.

Strength-agility and fine motor are differently associated with non-verbal intelligence in dependency to sex and age in school children: Structural equation modelling multigroup approach

BACKGROUND

In today's digital age, demanding to interpret vast quantities of visual information with speed and accuracy, nonverbal Intelligence has become increasingly crucial for children, as it plays a key role in cognitive development and learning. While motor proficiency has been positively linked to various cognitive functions in children, its relationship with nonverbal Intelligence remains an open question. This study, therefore, explored the structural associations between motor proficiency and nonverbal Intelligence in school-aged children (6 to 11 years), focusing on potential age and sex-specific patterns.

METHODS

Data were obtained from 396 children aged 6 to 11 (214 boys, 182 girls; mean age 8.9 years ±1.3) divided into younger children 6-8 years and older Children 9-11 years. Motor proficiency was assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2), and non-verbal Intelligence was evaluated with the Raven Progressive Matrices (RPM). We conducted multigroup structural modelling with non-verbal Intelligence as a dependent latent variable.

RESULTS

The BOT-2 and RPM models demonstrated an acceptable fit in Czech children. Strength-agility and Fine motor control emerged as the strongest predictors of nonverbal intelligence level assessed by five sets of RPM. Age-specific analyses revealed that the Strength-agility construct was consistently a significant predictor of nonverbal intelligence level in both age categories. However, in older children, also Fine motor control was significantly linked to nonverbal intelligence level. Sex-specific differences were also observed in the structural modelling results, indicating significant predictor non-invariance based on participants' sex. In girls, both Fine motor control and the Strength-agility constructs were significant predictors of nonverbal Intelligence level, showing stronger associations with nonverbal Intelligence than boys. For boys, only the Strength-agility construct was a significant predictor of RPM performance.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals a nuanced age- and sex-specific relationship between children's motor proficiency and nonverbal Intelligence. The findings underscore the need for targeted physical interventions, particularly those emphasising fine motor and strength-agility exercises, to ensure equitable opportunities for motor skill development. Such interventions may enhance physical abilities and support cognitive development in an increasingly digital world.

Associations Between Motor Competence and Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Motor competence and executive functions co-develop throughout childhood and adolescence, and there is emerging evidence that improvements in motor competence may have cognitive benefits in these populations. There is a need to provide a quantitative synthesis of the cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that have examined the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged youth.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of our systematic review was to synthesise evidence of the association between motor competence and executive functions in school-aged children and adolescents (5-18 years). Our secondary aim was to examine key moderators of this association.

METHODS

We searched the PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Ovid MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus and EMBASE databases from inception up to 27 June 2023. We included cross-sectional, longitudinal and experimental studies that assessed the association between motor competence (e.g., general motor competence, locomotor skills, object control skills and stability skills) and executive functions (e.g., general executive functions, inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility) in children and adolescents aged 5-18 years.

RESULTS

In total, 12,117 records were screened for eligibility, and 44 studies were included. From the 44 included studies, we meta-analysed 37 studies with 251 effect sizes using a structural equation modelling approach in the statistical program R. We found a small positive association (r = 0.18, [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.13-0.22]) between motor competence and executive functions. The positive associations were observed in cross-sectional (r = 0.17, [95% CI 0.13-0.22]), longitudinal (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.03-0.28]) and experimental studies (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.01-0.45]). We also found that general motor competence (r = 0.25, [95% CI 0.18-0.33]), locomotor (r = 0.15, [95% CI 0.09-0.21]), object control (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) and stability (r = 0.14, [95% CI 0.08-0.20]) skills were associated with executive functions. We did not find any moderating effects for participants' age on the associations between motor competence and executive functions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest a small-to-moderate positive association between motor competence and executive functions in children and adolescents. The small number of experimental studies included in this review support the assertion that interventions targeting children's motor competence may be a promising strategy to improve their executive functions; however, more research is needed to confirm these findings. Future studies should explore the underlying mechanisms linking motor competence and executive functions as their comprehension may be used to optimise future intervention design and delivery.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

CRD42021285134.

The relationship of aerobic fitness with verbal and spatial working memory: An ERP study

Working memory (WM) plays an important role in daily life and is known to correlated with aerobic fitness. However, whether the relationship between aerobic fitness and WM is dependent on the stimulus modality or is associated with one or multiple subprocesses involved in WM remains unknown. Accordingly, this study utilized event-related potentials (ERPs) to comprehensively examine the encoding, preparation, and retrieval processes during verbal and spatial WM performance. Eighty-eight young adults aged 18-30years were recruited to participate in two laboratory visits on separate days. On day 1, aerobic fitness was assessed by maximum oxygen consumption (V˙O2max) during a treadmill-based graded exercise test. On day 2, participants completed verbal and spatial WM tasks while P2, contingent negative voltage (CNV), and P3 components of ERP were recorded during the encoding, preparatory, and retrieval stages of WM, respectively. Results of hierarchical regression analysis showed that V˙O2max was positively correlated with response accuracy during the high-demanding condition of spatial WM after controlling for age, sex, and self-reported physical activity. Additionally, a higher level of V˙O2max was associated with larger terminal CNV amplitude at the Cz electrode during the high-demanding condition of spatial WM. These findings suggest that aerobic fitness may have selective beneficial associations with the motor preparatory process and subsequent task performance requiring a greater amount of spatial information but not the encoding and retrieval stages nor the verbal modality of WM.

Aerobic exercise improves verbal working memory sub-processes in adolescents: behavioral evidence from an N-back task

Background

Studies on the effects of aerobic exercise on working memory (WM) have mainly concentrated on the overall effects, yet there is little knowledge on how moderate intensity aerobic exercise impacts the sub-processes of verbal WM (VWM) in adolescents. To address this gap, two experiments were conducted to explore the influence of aerobic exercise on the maintenance and updating sub-processes of VWM.

Methods

In Experiment 1, a mixed experimental design of 2 (exercise habit: high vs. low) × 3 (memory load: 0-back vs. 1-back vs. 2-back) was used to compare VWM and its sub-processes in 40 adolescents. In Experiment 2, a 2 (group: intervention vs. control) × 3 (time point: pretest vs. 1st post-test vs. 18th post-test) × 3 (memory load: 0-back vs. 1-back vs. 2-back) mixed experimental design was used to investigate the acute and long-term effects of moderate intensity aerobic exercise on VWM and its sub-processes in 24 adolescents with low exercise habits.

Results

The results of Experiment 1 showed that VWM performance and its sub-processes in the high exercise habit group were better than those in the low exercise habit group. The results of Experiment 2 showed that the effects of the long-term exercise intervention were superior to those of the acute exercise intervention, and both were superior to the pretest. Meanwhile, it was found that aerobic exercise intervention had a greater effect size on the updating sub-process of VWM.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the results indicated that moderate intensity aerobic exercise could enhance the performance of VWM and its sub-processes in adolescents, and long-term intervention showed greater improvement effects compared to acute intervention, especially in the updating sub-process of VWM.

The Influence of Motor Competence on Broader Aspects of Health: A Systematic Review of the Longitudinal Associations Between Motor Competence and Cognitive and Social-Emotional Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Motor competence has important developmental associations with aspects of physical health, but there has been no synthesis of longitudinal associations with cognitive and social-emotional health.

OBJECTIVES

The first aim was to present a conceptual model that positions motor competence as a mediator between physical activity and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. The second aim was to synthesize the association of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development using longitudinal observational and experimental evidence, in particular to (i) identify the role of task, individual, and environmental characteristics in moderating the association between motor and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes and (ii) synthesize the strength of evidence pertaining to domain-specific relationships.

METHODS

This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched. Following study screening and risk-of-bias assessment by two authors, 49 eligible studies were identified for inclusion and grouped by study design. Evidence for domain-specific paths between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes was synthesized by calculating the significant analyses in the hypothesized direction, divided by the total number of analyses for that path. These percentages were then collated for each domain outcome. This collated influence was classified as either no association (0-33%), written as '0', or indeterminate/inconsistent (34-59%), written as '?' If there were fewer than three studies in the domain, the strength of evidence was classified as insufficient (I).

RESULTS

Of the 49 studies, 35% were able to satisfy six or more of the seven risk-of-bias criteria. Longitudinal observational evidence about domain-specific and global associations of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development is indeterminate. The included studies also did not provide evidence for a consistent moderating role of age and sex. Some preliminary experimental evidence does support the role of motor competence in moderating the influence of cognitively enriched physical activity on cognitive outcomes, especially working memory and social-emotional skills. However, too few studies were appropriately designed to acknowledge the moderating role of contextual mechanisms.

CONCLUSIONS

Between-study heterogeneity means it was not possible to identify definitive domain- and construct-specific relationships between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. To further develop our understanding, it is important that researchers acknowledge the complexity of these relationships within rigorous study designs.

Basic motor competencies in Slovak children from the 3rd and 4th grade elementary age group

Background

The development of movement skills is the basic goal of physical and sports education. Their level is a determining factor in the subsequent involvement of the child in physical activities. Goal is to contribute to the knowledge of basic motor competencies (BMC) in the 3rd and 4th grade boys and girls from elementary schools.

Methods

We collected data from 468 children (Mage = 9.6, SD = 0.6 years; 228 girls and 240 boys) from 16 third grade and 16 fourth grade classes at ten elementary schools in different parts (central, west, north) of the Slovak Republic. The primary data on the basic motor competencies of the examined groups were obtained by means of the MOBAK-3 test battery. Construct validity was analyzed by confirmatory factorial analysis and relationships between BMC and age, gender and BMI were analyzed by structural equation modeling.

Results

Boys had a better performance in object movement activities than the girls p < 0.01. Situation in self-movement activities was different, girls had a better performance than boys p < 0.05. The general expectation that grade is a factor to improve the performance in basic motor competencies in the compared 3rd- and 4th-graders was not clearly fulfilled. This assumption was only confirmed in girls (object movement p < 0.05, self movement p < 0.01). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed the two-factor structure of basic motor competencies on object-movement and self-movement, while gender, BMI and age were confirmed as significant covariances.

Conclusions

The theory of BMC in the 3rd- and 4th-graders at elementary schools is an appropriate method to uncover the grounds for a positive attitude to physical activities later in life.

Differential features of early childhood motor skill development and working memory processing: evidence from fNIRS

Objective

The study investigated the differential characteristics associated with motor skill development and working memory processing during early childhood, thereby providing insights for understanding motor learning and cognitive development in young children.

Methods

In total, 101 preschool children (age: 4-6 years) were recruited for this study. The motor skill development level and the working memory capacity of the children were assessed using the MOBAK Motor Development Assessment Scale and a block task paradigm, respectively. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy brain imaging technology was used to monitor hemodynamic signals in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of the children while they completed different memory tasks. MATLAB software and the Homer2 plugin were used to calculate the oxygenated hemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) concentration in relevant brain regions during the tasks.

Results

(1) The low motor skill group exhibited significantly lower accuracy during the three-memory load condition than during the two-memory load condition. Under both two-memory and three-memory load conditions, the high motor skill group exhibited significantly higher accuracy than the low motor skill group. (2) Significant differences in the Oxy-Hb concentration were observed in the left dorsolateral PFC (L-DLPFC), and right and left triangular part of the Broca's area (R-PTBA and L-PTBA, respectively) between the two memory difficulty levels for the high motor skill group. The Oxy-Hb concentration was significantly higher during the three-memory load condition than during the two-memory load condition. Under the two-memory load condition, the high motor skill group exhibited significantly higher Oxy-Hb concentration in the L-DLPFC and L-PTBA regions than in the low motor skill group. Under the three-memory load condition, the high motor skill group exhibited significantly higher Oxy-Hb concentration in the L-DLPFC, R-PTBA, and L-PTBA regions than the low motor skill group.

Conclusion

A close association was observed between the motor skill levels and working memory in young children, with higher motor skill levels being associated with more pronounced brain activation patterns during working memory tasks.

Physical activity intervention promotes working memory and motor competence in preschool children

Objective

This study investigated the effects of 12 weeks of specifically designed physical activity intervention on working memory and motor competence in preschool children and explored the correlation between working memory changes and motor competence changes by the intervention.

Methods

Four classes of preschool children were grouped into an intervention group and a control group. Children in the intervention group received a 12-week physical activity intervention, while children in the control group followed their daily routine as usual. Before and after the intervention period, children were assessed with the 1-back task and Movement Assessment Battery for Children, second edition (MABC-2) to measure their working memory and motor competence, respectively.

Results

Regarding working memory, the accuracy on the 1-back task increased significantly in the intervention group relative to the control group. The intervention group demonstrated a greater decrease in response time from pre- to posttest than the control group, but the difference was not statistically significant. Regarding motor competence, children's manual dexterity, aiming and catching and total score increased significantly in the intervention group relative to the control group, while no significant difference in static and dynamic balance was observed between the two groups. Furthermore, the correlation results showed that changes in the efficacy and efficiency of working memory were positively related to changes in static and dynamic balance and the total score on the MABC-2.

Conclusion

These findings demonstrated that 12 weeks of specifically designed physical activity intervention could improve preschool children's efficacy of working memory as well as manual dexterity, aiming and catching and global motor competence. The improvement in the efficacy and efficiency of working memory was positively related to the improvement in static and dynamic balance and global motor competence.

Exercise types and working memory components during development

Working memory is crucial to learning and academic success. Exercise has been found to benefit working memory in late life, but its effects during cognitive development are less clear. Building on findings that working memory is supported by the motor system, we highlight the sensitivity of different working memory components to acute and long-term exercise in children and adolescents. We also consider how the specific skill demands of endurance and coordinative exercise influence this sensitivity. Distinct effects of these exercise types are further linked with neurocognitive and neuroendocrine pathways. Our review suggests long-term rather than acute benefits of exercise for children and adolescents' working memory, which are more pronounced and specific for exercise with high coordinative demands.

Fostering Holistic Development with a Designed Multisport Intervention in Physical Education: A Class-Randomized Cross-Over Trial

Physical education (PE) is acknowledged as a relevant context for holistic child and youth development promotion. However, interventional research mostly builds on individual theories focused on specific outcome domains. This study presents a multisport enriched PE intervention that capitalizes on the intersection of different theory-based approaches to motor, cognitive and socio-emotional skills development promotion. With a cross-over design, 181 fifth graders, coming from a past class-randomized trial of enriched or traditional PE in their 1st–3rd grade, were stratified (based on their previous PE experience) and class-randomized to multisport enriched PE or control group. They completed pre-post assessments in motor and sport skills, cool (inhibition, working memory) and hot (decision making) executive functions, prosocial (empathy, cooperation) and antisocial (quick-temperedness, disruptiveness) behaviors. Children in the enriched PE group showed advantages in motor and prosocial skills after the intervention, which were linked by a mediation path, and an interactive effect of past and actual PE experience on decision making but no differential effects on other variables. The results suggest that a PE intervention designed with an integrative theory base, although not allowing disentangling the contribution of individual components to its efficacy, may help pursue benefits in motor and non-motor domains relevant to whole-child development.

Gender Differences on Motor Competence in 5-Year-Old Preschool Children Regarding Relative Age

The aim of this study was to evaluate the differences on motor competence between 5-year-old boys and girls and to investigate the existence of Relative Age Effect (RAE) on their motor competence. A total of 232 preschool children were evaluated of whom 134 (57.8%) were boys and 98 (42.2%) were girls. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) was used to collect data. The data show a main effect on gender factor; there was a main effect in total score of manual dexterity (MD; p = 0.010), in total score of balance (Bal; p < 0.001), in total test score (TTS; p < 0.001), and in total percentile score (TPS, p < 0.001). In the semester of birth factor, there were differences in aiming and catching (A&C, p < 0.001), in Bal (p = 0.029) and in total percentile score (TPS, p = 0.010). Girls perform better in MD, Bal, TTS, and TPS than boys. Preschool children born in the first semester obtain, in general, a higher percentage and a higher percentile than their peers born in the second one. RAE is present in A&C, Bal, and TPS, with higher scores obtained by preschool children born in the first semester compared to those born in the second one.

Physical activity and aerobic fitness show different associations with brain processes underlying anticipatory selective visuospatial attention in adolescents

Current knowledge about the underlying brain processes of exercise-related benefits on executive functions and the specific contributions of physical activity and aerobic fitness during adolescence is inconclusive. We explored whether and how physical activity and aerobic fitness are associated with the oscillatory dynamics underlying anticipatory spatial attention. We studied whether the link between physical exercise level and cognitive control in adolescents is mediated by task-related oscillatory activity. Magnetoencephalographic alpha oscillations during a modified Posner's cueing paradigm were measured in 59 adolescents (37 females and 22 males, 12-17 years). Accelerometer-measured physical activity and aerobic fitness (20-m shuttle run test) were used to divide the sample into higher- and lower-performing groups. The interhemispheric alpha asymmetry during selective attention was larger in the high than in the low physical activity group, but there was no difference between the high and low aerobic fitness groups. Exploratory mediation analysis suggested that anticipatory interhemispheric asymmetry mediates the association between physical activity status and drift rate in the selective attention task. Higher physical activity was related to increased cue-induced asymmetry, which in turn was associated with less efficient processing of information. Behaviorally, more physically active males showed stronger dependence on the cue, while more fit females showed more efficient processing of information. Our findings suggest that physical activity may be associated with a neural marker of anticipatory attention in adolescents. These findings might help to explain the varying results regarding the association of physical activity and aerobic fitness with attention and inhibition in adolescents.

Up-regulation of proactive control is associated with beneficial effects of a childhood gymnastics program on response preparation and working memory

The current study focused on the effects of an 8-week motor skill-based physical activity (i.e., gymnastics) program on the contingent negative variation derived from event-related brain potentials (CNV-ERP) during a working memory task in children. Children aged 7-10 years old were assigned to a gymnastics group (n = 26) or a wait-list control group (n = 24). The gymnastics group engaged in a gymnastics program whereas children in the control group were asked to maintain their typical routine during the intervention period. Working memory performance was measured by a delayed-matching working memory task, accompanied by CNV-ERP collection. The results revealed significant improvement of response accuracy from pre-test to post-test in the gymnastic group regardless of memory demands. Moreover, significant increase from pre-test to post-test in the initial CNV was observed in the gymnastic group regardless of memory demands. Bivariate correlations further indicated that, in the gymnastic group, increases in response accuracy from pre-test to post-test were correlated with increases in initial CNV from pre-test to post-test in task conditions with lower and higher memory loads. Overall, the current findings suggest that up-regulation of proactive control may characterize the beneficial effects of childhood motor skill-based physical activity on working memory.

A Narrative Review of Motor Competence in Children and Adolescents: What We Know and What We Need to Find Out

Lack of physical activity is a global public health problem causing not only morbidity and premature mortality, but it is also a major economic burden worldwide. One of the cornerstones of a physically active lifestyle is Motor Competence (MC). MC is a complex biocultural attribute and therefore, its study requires a multi-sectoral, multi-, inter- and transdisciplinary approach. MC is a growing area of research, especially in children and adolescents due to its positive association with a plethora of health and developmental outcomes. Many questions, however, remain to be answered in this field of research, with regard to: (i) Health and Developmental-related Associations of MC; (ii) Assessment of MC; (iii) Prevalence and Trends of MC; (iv) Correlates and Determinants of MC; (v) MC Interventions, and (vi) Translating MC Research into Practice and Policy. This paper presents a narrative review of the literature, summarizing current knowledge, identifying key research gaps and presenting questions for future investigation on MC in children and adolescents. This is a collaborative effort from the International Motor Competence Network (IMCNetwork) a network of academics and researchers aiming to promote international collaborative research and knowledge translation in the expansive field of MC. The knowledge and deliverables generated by addressing and answering the aforementioned research questions on MC presented in this review have the potential to shape the ways in which researchers and practitioners promote MC and physical activity in children and adolescents across the world.

Relationships between gross motor skills, cardiovascular fitness, and visuospatial working memory-related brain activation in 8- to 10-year-old children

Relationships between gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness with visuospatial working memory (VSWM) in children are hypothesized to be mediated by underlying functional brain mechanisms. Because there is little experimental evidence to support this mechanism, the present study was designed to investigate the relationships of gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness with VSWM-related brain activation in 8- to 10-year-old children. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data obtained during a VSWM-task were analyzed for 80 children from grades 3 (47.5%) and 4 of 21 primary schools in the Netherlands (51.3% girls). Gross motor skills (Korper Koordinationstest für Kinder and Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - 2nd Edition) and cardiovascular fitness (20-meter Shuttle Run Test) were assessed. VSWM-related brain activation was found in a network involving the angular gyrus, the superior parietal cortex, and the thalamus; deactivation was found in the inferior and middle temporal gyri. Although behavioral results showed significant relations of gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness with VSWM performance, gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness were not related to VSWM-related brain activation. Therefore, we could not confirm the hypothesis that brain activation underlies the relationship of gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness with VSWM performance. Our results suggest that either the effects of physical activity on cognition do not necessarily go via changes in gross motor skills and/or cardiovascular fitness, or that brain activation patterns as measured with the blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) signal may not be the mechanism underlying the relationships of gross motor skills and cardiovascular fitness with VSWM.

Relations between gross motor skills and executive functions, controlling for the role of information processing and lapses of attention in 8-10 year old children

This study aimed to systematically investigate the relation between gross motor skills and aspects of executive functioning (i.e. verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory, response inhibition and interference control) in 8-10 year old children. Additionally, the role of information processing (speed and variability) and lapses of attention in the relation between gross motor skills and executive functions was investigated. Data of 732 Dutch children from grade 3 and 4 were analyzed (50.0% boys, 50.4% grade 3, age = 9.16 ± 0.64 years). Gross motor skills were assessed using three items of the Körper Koordinationstest für Kinder and one item of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition. Executive functions were assessed using the Wechsler Digit Span task (verbal working memory), the Visuospatial Memory task (visuospatial working memory), the Stop Signal task (response inhibition) and a modified version of the Flanker task (interference control). Information processing and lapses of attention were obtained by applying an ex-Gaussian analysis on go trials of the Stop Signal task. Multilevel regression analysis showed that gross motor skills were significantly related to verbal working memory, visuospatial working memory and response inhibition, but not to interference control. Lapses of attention was a significant predictor for all executive functions, whereas processing speed was not. Variability in processing speed was only predictive for visuospatial working memory. After controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills were only significantly related to visuospatial working memory and response inhibition. The results suggest that after controlling for information processing and lapses of attention, gross motor skills are related to aspects of executive functions that are most directly involved in, and share common underlying processes with, gross motor skills.