Impact of Bedside Echocardiography in the Management of Critically Ill Pediatric Patients in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit: A Cross-Sectional Study

Background Managing critically ill pediatric patients is a challenging responsibility that necessitates effective prioritization and time management. It is important not only to assess the condition of the patient on a continuous and real-time basis but also to assess in a way that will provide vital clues that may help in diagnosis and treatment. Our study aims to investigate the association between echocardiography and clinical systemic examination, to find the association between cardiac dysfunction and pediatric outcomes, and to identify the indications and necessity of echocardiography assessments and therapeutic interventions for patients in the pediatric intensive care unit. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) of the pediatrics department at Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Wardha, India. All critically ill pediatric patients admitted to the PICU underwent echocardiography. The study primarily focused on the indications for echocardiography, the association between systolic and diastolic dysfunction and patient outcomes, and the therapeutic interventions implemented based on the echocardiographic findings.  Results The study analyzed 139 subjects aged from one month to 204 months, with the majority in the one- to five-year age group, followed by the 10-15-year age group. Cardiac anomalies were identified in 39 out of 139 cases, and cardiac murmurs were present in 27 cases with an almost equal gender distribution in the infantile age group. Dyspnea, edema, and hepatomegaly were the most common indications for echocardiography. Lasix was the most commonly used antifailure drug used in heart diseases. Sixteen individuals had systolic dysfunction, and eight had diastolic dysfunction, with a mortality rate of 62%. There was a significant association between systolic and diastolic dysfunction and mortality. Conclusion Echocardiography is a valuable asset within the PICU, providing critical insights into cardiac function and hemodynamics. By guiding clinical decision-making, it plays a pivotal role in optimizing care strategies, ultimately leading to improved outcomes for pediatric patients admitted with cardiac conditions. Overall, the study emphasizes the complex nature of pediatric cardiac conditions and the necessity for individualized treatment approaches based on distinct diagnoses and clinical indications.

Outcomes of Children With Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome and Heart Failure on Medical Therapy

Background

Systemic right ventricle (RV) dysfunction is associated with lower transplant-free survival (TFS) in hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), but the likelihood of functional improvement and utility of heart failure (HF) medications is not understood.

Objectives

The authors aimed to describe TFS, HF medication use, and surgical interventions in HLHS patients with RV dysfunction with and without subsequent improvement in function.

Methods

The SickKids HF Database is a retrospective cohort that includes all pediatric HLHS patients with RV dysfunction lasting >30 days. We compared TFS, HF medications, and surgical interventions in HLHS patients with and without functional normalization.

Results

Of 99 patients with HLHS and RV dysfunction, 52% had normalized function for ≥30 days. TFS at 2 years after dysfunction onset was lower in those without normalization (14% vs 78%, P < 0.001). Patients without normalization were less likely to reach target dosing (TD) of HF medications (27% vs 47% on 1 medication at TD, P < 0.001) and undergo Fontan completion (7% vs 53%, P < 0.001). Clinical factors associated with improved TFS were normalization of function for ≥30 days, onset of dysfunction after bidirectional Glenn, and exposure to ACE inhibition.

Conclusions

Our cohort of HLHS patients with systemic RV dysfunction demonstrated a novel finding of improved TFS in those with functional normalization for ≥30 days. Achieving TD of HF medications was associated with improved outcomes. This may reflect patient stability and tolerance for HF medication more than its therapeutic effect, but it can help inform decisions to proceed with surgical palliation or list for transplant.

Treatment Strategies for Cardiomyopathy in Children: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

This scientific statement from the American Heart Association focuses on treatment strategies and modalities for cardiomyopathy (heart muscle disease) in children and serves as a companion scientific statement for the recent statement on the classification and diagnosis of cardiomyopathy in children. We propose that the foundation of treatment of pediatric cardiomyopathies is based on these principles applied as personalized therapy for children with cardiomyopathy: (1) identification of the specific cardiac pathophysiology; (2) determination of the root cause of the cardiomyopathy so that, if applicable, cause-specific treatment can occur (precision medicine); and (3) application of therapies based on the associated clinical milieu of the patient. These clinical milieus include patients at risk for developing cardiomyopathy (cardiomyopathy phenotype negative), asymptomatic patients with cardiomyopathy (phenotype positive), patients with symptomatic cardiomyopathy, and patients with end-stage cardiomyopathy. This scientific statement focuses primarily on the most frequent phenotypes, dilated and hypertrophic, that occur in children. Other less frequent cardiomyopathies, including left ventricular noncompaction, restrictive cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy, are discussed in less detail. Suggestions are based on previous clinical and investigational experience, extrapolating therapies for cardiomyopathies in adults to children and noting the problems and challenges that have arisen in this experience. These likely underscore the increasingly apparent differences in pathogenesis and even pathophysiology in childhood cardiomyopathies compared with adult disease. These differences will likely affect the utility of some adult therapy strategies. Therefore, special emphasis has been placed on cause-specific therapies in children for prevention and attenuation of their cardiomyopathy in addition to symptomatic treatments. Current investigational strategies and treatments not in wide clinical practice, including future direction for investigational management strategies, trial designs, and collaborative networks, are also discussed because they have the potential to further refine and improve the health and outcomes of children with cardiomyopathy in the future.

Vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation: rationalizing medical management of neonatal heart failure

Neonates who present in high output heart failure secondary to vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation can be difficult to manage medically due to the complex physiology that results from the large shunt through the malformation. Though the cardiac function is often normal, right ventricular dilation, severe pulmonary hypertension, and systemic steal can result in inadequate organ perfusion and shock. This report recommends medical management for stabilization of neonates prior to definitive management with endovascular embolization. IMPACT: Vein of Galen aneurysmal malformation (VGAM) is a rare intracranial arteriovenous malformation, which can present in the neonatal period with high output heart failure. Heart failure secondary to VGAM is often difficult to manage and is associated with high mortality and morbidity. Despite optimal medical management, many patients require urgent endovascular embolization for stabilization of their heart failure. This report offers discrete recommendations that can be used by clinicians as guidelines for the medical management of heart failure in newborns with VGAM.

Prescription of cardiovascular medication in children with congenital heart defects across six European Regions from 2000 to 2014: data from the EUROlinkCAT population-based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

Advances in surgical management strategies have substantially reduced fatality from congenital heart defects (CHD). Decreased infant mortality might be expected, consequentially to result in greater morbidity in older children due to complications later in childhood and adolescence. This study aims to evaluate the use of cardiovascular medication (CVM) as an indicator of disease burden in children born with CHD in the first 10 years of life.

DESIGN

Population-based cohort study.

SETTING

Six population-based registries from the European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies (EUROCAT) network participated. Data from live born children with major congenital anomalies (CA) born from 2000 to 2014 were linked to prescription databases. Four groups of children were analysed: CA, CHD, severe CHD (sCHD) and ventricular septal defect (VSD) without sCHD. Live born children without CA were included as reference group.

PARTICIPANTS

We obtained data on 61 038 children born with a CA, including 19 678 with CHD, 3392 with sCHD, 12 728 children with VSD without sCHD, and 1 725 496 reference children.

RESULTS

Children born with sCHD were the most likely to receive a CVM prescription (42.9%, 95% CI, 26.3 to 58.5) in the first year of life compared with 13.3% (6.7 to 22.0) of children with any CHD, 5.9% (3.7 to 8.7) of children with any CA and 0.1% (0.0 to 0.1) of reference children. Medication was less likely to be prescribed after the first year of life for sCHD; 18.8% (14.8 to 23.1) for children 1-4 years and 15.8% (12.0 to 20.1) 5-9 years. Children with sCHD were most likely to receive a diuretic (36.4%, 18.6 to 54.5), an antihypertensive (6.9%, 3.7 to 11.3) or a beta-blocker (5.5%, 2.9 to9.2).

CONCLUSION

Almost half of all children with sCHD were prescribed CVM in their first year of life. For all four groups of children with anomalies, the proportion of children with a CVM prescription decreased with age.

Real-World Use of Carvedilol in Children With Dilated Cardiomyopathy: Long-Term Effect on Survival and Ventricular Function

BACKGROUND

Carvedilol is recommended for chronic heart failure (HF) treatment in children. However, the ideal dosage and administration are not standardized, and data on its long-term effects are lacking. This study aimed to assess the effect of a high dosage regimen of carvedilol on cardiac outcomes in children with HF.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study including all children with HF and dilated cardiomyopathy. We analyzed medical records before starting treatment, at 1 and 3 years after reaching the maximum therapeutic dosage. All data were compared with a historical control group. Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazard regression have been used to evaluate the effect of high dosage carvedilol therapy. The main outcome was a composite of all-cause mortality and heart transplant.

RESULTS

One hundred thirty-five were included in the study and 65 treated with a high dosage of carvedilol regimen (up to 1 mg/kg/day). Heart rate reduction (mean reduction 30%, p < 0.0001) and ejection fraction improvement (32 ± 9.4 vs. 45. ± 10.1%, p < 0.0001) were statistically significant in those. Long-term survival and freedom from heart transplant were significantly improved in those treated with high dosage carvedilol therapy (p = 0.00001).

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with the high dosage of carvedilol, in addition to standard HF therapy, significantly improves ventricular function and survival in children with dilated cardiomyopathy and chronic HF.

Establishing Baseline Metrics of Heart Failure Medication Use in Children: A Collaborative Effort from the ACTION Network

Heart failure metrics specific to the pediatric population are required to successfully implement quality improvement initiatives in children with heart failure. Medication use at the time of discharge following admission for decompensated heart failure has been identified as a potential quality metric in this population. This study aimed to report medication use at discharge in the current era for children admitted with acute decompensated heart failure. All patients < 21 years of age with an index admission (1/1/2011-12/31/2019) for acute heart failure and a coexisting diagnosis of cardiomyopathy were identified from the Pediatric Health Information System. Medication use patterns were described and compared across age groups and centers. A total of 2288 patients were identified for inclusion. An angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker (ACEi/ARB) was prescribed in 1479 (64.6%), beta blocker in 1132 (49.5%), and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (MRA) in 864 (37.8%) patients at discharge. The use of ACEi/ARB at discharge has decreased over time (64.6% vs. 69.6%, p = 0.001) and the use of beta blockers has increased (49.5% vs. 36.8%, p < 0.001) compared to a historical cohort (2001-2010). There is considerable variability in medication use across centers with an overall increase in beta blocker and decrease in ACEi/ARB use over time. Collaborative efforts are needed to standardize care and define quality metrics to identify best practices in the management of pediatric heart failure.

Recent and Upcoming Drug Therapies for Pediatric Heart Failure

Pediatric heart failure (HF) is an important clinical condition with high morbidity, mortality, and costs. Due to the heterogeneity in clinical presentation and etiologies, the development of therapeutic strategies is more challenging in children than adults. Most guidelines recommending drug therapy for pediatric HF are extrapolated from studies in adults. Unfortunately, even using all available treatment, progression to cardiac transplantation is common. The development of prospective clinical trials in the pediatric population has significant obstacles, including small sample sizes, slow recruitment rates, challenging endpoints, and high costs. However, progress is being made as evidenced by the recent introduction of ivabradine and of sacubitril/valsartan. In the last 5 years, new drugs have also been developed for HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) in adults. The use of well-designed prospective clinical trials will be fundamental in the evaluation of safety and efficacy of these new drugs on the pediatric population. The aim of this article is to review the clinical presentation and management of acute and chronic pediatric heart failure, focusing on systolic dysfunction in patients with biventricular circulation and a systemic left ventricle. We discuss the drugs recently approved for children and those emerging, or in use for adults with HFrEF.

Update of Pediatric Heart Failure

Pediatric heart failure (PHF) affects 0.87 to 7.4 per 100,000 children. It has a 5-year mortality or heart transplant rate of 40%. Diagnosis often is delayed because initial symptoms are similar to common pediatric illnesses. Disease progression is tracked by symptoms, echocardiogram, and biomarkers. Treatment is extrapolated from mostly adult heart failure (HF) literature. Recent studies demonstrate differences between pediatric and adult HF pathophysiology. Increased collaboration among PHF programs is advancing the management of PHF. Unfortunately, there are patients who ultimately require heart transplantation, with increasing numbers supported by a ventricular assist device as a bridge to transplantation.

Antihypertensive drugs use over a 5-year period among children and adolescents in Beijing, China: An observational study

Evidence on the prescription patterns of antihypertensive drug use in children and adolescents in China is scarce. A descriptive analysis of the Beijing Medical Claim Data, which covered over 95% of the urban residents, was conducted to investigate antihypertensive prescribing patterns and trends in children and adolescents aged under 18 from 2009 to 2014 in Beijing, China. An additional meta-analysis of trends in hypertension prevalence was conducted to compare trends with antihypertensive medications.A total of 11,882 patients received at least 1 prescription for antihypertensive drugs from 2009 to 2014. The number of annual antihypertensive users increased from 2009 to 2012, then declined steadily until 2014, which was consistent with the trend of the hypertension prevalence estimated from the meta-analysis. β-receptor blockers, thiazide diuretics, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors were the 3 most commonly prescribed antihypertensive drugs. More boys took the antihypertensive drugs than girls. For users aged under 3 years, thiazide diuretics, α-receptor blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors were the most prescribed drugs, while β-receptor blockers, thiazide diuretics were the most used drugs for users above 3 years.In conclusion, antihypertensive drug prescribing for children and adolescents increased from 2009 to 2014, with different characteristics in different subgroups.

Update on pediatric heart failure

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review highlights recent advances in the diagnosis and management of children with heart failure. We emphasize the clinical approach to patient care in the areas of acute decompensated heart failure, chronic heart failure, and failure of the patient with single ventricle physiology.

RECENT FINDINGS

Important guidelines regarding the recognition and management of heart failure in children have been proposed and adopted, providing guidance for early recognition and ongoing management. Early diuresis, and avoidance of excessive inotropic agent use, in favor of milrinone as an inotropic-vasodilator agent, are emphasized. Close monitoring of airway pressures to improve ventricular filling, and extubation to positive pressure or high-flow nasal cannula therapy are also important. Chronic heart failure therapy requires combination treatment with diuretics, and the three major classes of drugs. Management of the failing Fontan requires attention to the hepatic, pulmonary and lymphatic circulations.

SUMMARY

Improved outcomes in children with heart failure are possible. Inherent in this success is the engagement of an interdisciplinary team-based approach to care, with early recognition and escalation of care for specific patients who are not improving as predicted.

Pediatric heart failure therapy: why β1-receptor blocker, tissue ACE-I and mineralocorticoid-receptor-blocker?

Pediatric heart failure (HF) treatment lagged behind the knowledge of pharmacological research and evidence-based clinical experience in adults. Considering the lack of prospective, double blind randomized studies in children, the review is focused on the preferred indication of specific β1-adrenoreceptor blockers (ARB), mineralocorticoid antagonists and tissue angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I). Our recommendations are based on the specificity in children, the effectiveness and the side-effect profile of HF-drugs, the receptor-physiological knowledge and the negative results of the few pediatric HF studies with an "evidence study label". In the interest of our pediatric patients, effective HF treatment has not longer to be postponed by balancing between evidence-based versus pathophysiology-based approach. At our institution, bisoprolol, lisinopril and spironolactone (BLS) are used treating HF in patients with left-right shunt lesions, reduced ejection fraction as well as during the inter-stage after HLHS-Hybrid approach. Chronic use of diuretics and fluid restriction is avoided, if always possible; intravascular volume deficiency stimulates further the neurohumoral axis. Pediatric HF needs to be treated with a strategy respecting the variable pathophysiology and the differences of receptor physiology between children and adult patients. The personalized treatment can be easily proofed by the surrogate parameters as heart rate, breath pattern, weight gain and image-derived parameters as well as biomarkers. Effective HF-therapy is also the basis for novel regenerative strategies in particular for young children with "end-stage" HF avoiding cardiac transplant or death.

Congestive Heart Failure in Children

Congestive heart failure is a final common clinical pathway for several diseases in childhood, such as familial cardiomyopathy, viral myocarditis, inborn errors of metabolism, and autoimmune disorders. Early identification and treatment can reduce symptom severity and may affect outcomes. In this review, the clinical characteristics of pediatric heart failure are described, and the initial diagnostic evaluation is outlined. Evidence-based heart failure treatment strategies at various clinical stages are discussed in detail, including the management of acute decompensated heart failure.

Trends in prescription of cardiovascular drugs to children in relation to prevalence of CHD from 1999 to 2016

IntroductionOwing to massive improvements in the diagnostics and surgery of children with CHD, fatality has decreased substantially. As more children with CHD survive from infancy into later childhood, more will need medication for chronic heart failure. However, surprisingly little is actually known about which drugs are being used to treat children with CHD, and whether prescription rates and CHD prevalence have changed over time.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess the total prescription of cardiovascular drugs to children during an 18-year period and to assess concomitant CHD prevalence.

METHODS

All prescription data of cardiovascular drugs to children aged 0-19 years were extracted from publicly available databases in Norway and Denmark from 1999 to 2016. This was coupled with data on CHD prevalence and birth rates.

RESULTS

The number of defined daily doses of cardiovascular drugs prescribed to children doubled in the study period. This was because of an increased use of beta blockers, angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors/angiotensin receptor blockers, and anti-arrhythmic agents. The use of some classes of drugs was significantly reduced over time. The prevalence of CHD remained constant in both countries - 80 per 10,000 births.

CONCLUSION

We show that there is an increase in the overall prescription of cardiovascular drugs to children. Beta blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme/angiotensin receptor blockers, and anti-arrhythmics account for the largest increase. Birth rates decreased or remained constant together with CHD prevalence, suggesting that the increased use of cardiovascular drugs reflected increased prescription per patient, rather than more patients receiving a constant amount of drugs.

Increased Fracture Risk with Furosemide Use in Children with Congenital Heart Disease

OBJECTIVES

To determine the association of furosemide therapy with the incidence of bone fractures in children with congenital heart disease.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a retrospective cohort study with data extracted from the 2008-2014 Texas Medicaid databases. Pediatric patients aged <12 years diagnosed with congenital heart disease, cardiomyopathy, or heart failure were included. Patients taking furosemide were categorized into a furosemide-adherent group (medication possession ratio of ≥70%), and a furosemide-nonadherent group (medication possession ratio of <70%). A third group of patients was matched to the furosemide user groups by using propensity score matching. A multivariate logistic regression and Cox proportional hazard model with a Kaplan-Meier plot (time-to-fracture) were used to compare the 3 groups, controlling for baseline demographics and clinical characteristics.

RESULTS

After matching, 3912 patients (furosemide adherent, n = 254; furosemide nonadherent, n = 724; no furosemide, n = 2934) were identified. The incidence of fractures was highest for the furosemide-adherent group (9.1%; 23 of 254), followed by the furosemide-nonadherent group (7.2%; 52 of 724), which were both higher than for patients who did not receive furosemide (5.0%; 148 of 2934) (P < .001). Using logistic regression, both furosemide groups were more likely to have fractures than the no furosemide group: furosemide-adherent OR of 1.9 (95% CI, 1.17-2.98; P = .009); furosemide nonadherent OR of 1.5 (95% CI, 1.10-2.14; P = .01). In the Cox proportional hazard model, the risk of fractures for the furosemide-adherent group was significantly higher compared with the no furosemide group (HR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.00-2.42; P = .04).

CONCLUSIONS

Furosemide therapy, even with nonconsistent dosing, was associated with an increased risk of bone fractures in children with congenital heart disease.

Perspective on precision medicine in paediatric heart failure

In 2015, President Obama launched the Precision Medicine Initiative (PMI), which introduced new funding to a method of research with the potential to study rare and complex diseases. Paediatric heart failure, a heterogeneous syndrome affecting approximately 1 in 100000 children, is one such condition in which precision medicine techniques may be applied with great benefit. Current heart failure therapies target downstream effects of heart failure rather than the underlying cause of heart failure. As such, they are often ineffective in paediatric heart failure, which is typically of primary (e.g. genetic) rather than secondary (e.g. acquired) aetiology. It is, therefore, important to develop therapies that can target the causes of heart failure in children with greater specificity thereby decreasing morbidity, mortality and burden of illness on both patients and their families. The benefits of co-ordinated research in genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics and phenomics along with dietary, lifestyle and social factors have led to novel therapeutic and prognostic applications in other fields such as oncology. Applying such co-ordinated research efforts to heart failure constitutes an important step in advancing care and improving the lives of those affected.

Readmissions for Heart Failure in Children

OBJECTIVE

To assess the frequency of inpatient 30-day readmission for heart failure in children with cardiomyopathy discharged after an admission for heart failure and the impact of discharge pharmacotherapy on readmissions.

STUDY DESIGN

The Pediatric Health Information System Database was queried for patients ≤18 years of age with an International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision code for heart failure (428.xx) or cardiomyopathy (425.xx) discharged from 2004 to 2013. Patients were excluded if they had congenital heart disease, expired on the initial admission, or underwent cardiac surgery. Patient admission characteristics were documented and discharge medications were captured. Frequency of 30-day readmission for heart failure was identified, and mixed effects multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to determine factors significant for readmission.

RESULTS

A total of 2386 patients met study criteria (52.1% male, median age 8.1 years [IQR 1.2-14.6 years]). Vasoactive medications were used in 70.3% of patients on initial admission, the most common of which was milrinone (62.8%). Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers were given at discharge to 67.4% and 35.9%, respectively. Frequency of 30-day readmission for heart failure was 12.9%. Duration of milrinone or beta-blocker use at discharge and institutional heart failure patient volume were associated with a greater odds of 30-day readmission, whereas mechanical ventilation on initial admission was associated with decreased odds of readmission.

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric patients with cardiomyopathy and heart failure have a high frequency of heart failure-related 30-day readmission. Outpatient pharmacotherapy at discharge does not appear to influence readmission.

Prophylactic milrinone for the prevention of low cardiac output syndrome and mortality in children undergoing surgery for congenital heart disease

BACKGROUND

Children with congenital heart disease often undergo heart surgery at a young age. They are at risk for postoperative low cardiac output syndrome (LCOS) or death. Milrinone may be used to provide inotropic and vasodilatory support during the immediate postoperative period.

OBJECTIVES

This review examines the effectiveness of prophylactic postoperative use of milrinone to prevent LCOS or death in children having undergone surgery for congenital heart disease.

SEARCH METHODS

Electronic and manual literature searches were performed to identify randomised controlled trials. We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE and Web of Science in February 2014 and conducted a top-up search in September 2014 as well as clinical trial registries and reference lists of published studies. We did not apply any language restrictions.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Only randomised controlled trials were selected for analysis. We considered studies with newborn infants, infants, toddlers, and children up to 12 years of age.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently extracted data according to a pre-defined protocol. We obtained additional information from all study authors.

MAIN RESULTS

Three of the five included studies compared milrinone versus levosimendan, one study compared milrinone with placebo, and one compared milrinone verus dobutamine, with 101, 242, and 50 participants, respectively. Three trials were at low risk of bias while two were at higher risk of bias. The number and definitions of outcomes were non-uniform as well. In one study comparing two doses of milrinone and placebo, there was some evidence in an overall comparison of milrinone versus placebo that milrinone lowered risk for LCOS (risk ratio (RR) 0.52, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.28 to 0.96; 227 participants). The results from two small studies do not provide enough information to determine whether milrinone increases the risk of LCOS when compared to levosimendan (RR 1.22, 95% CI 0.32 to 4.65; 59 participants). Mortality rates in the studies were low, and there was insufficient evidence to draw conclusions on the effect of milrinone compared to placebo or levosimendan or dobutamine regarding mortality, the duration of intensive care stay, hospital stay, mechanical ventilation, or maximum inotrope score (where available). Numbers of patients requiring mechanical cardiac support were also low and did not allow a comparison between studies, and none of the participants of any study received a heart transplantation up to the end of the respective follow-up period. Time to death within three months was not reported in any of the included studies. A number of adverse events was examined, but differences between the treatment groups could not be proven for hypotension, intraventricular haemorrhage, hypokalaemia, bronchospasm, elevated serum levels of liver enzymes, or a reduced left ventricular ejection fraction < 50% or reduced left ventricular fraction of shortening < 28%. Our analysis did not prove an increased risk of arrhythmias in patients treated prophylactically with milrinone compared with placebo (RR 3.59, 95% CI 0.83 to 15.42; 238 participants), a decreased risk of pleural effusions (RR 1.78, 95% CI 0.92 to 3.42; 231 participants), or a difference in risk of thrombocytopenia on milrinone compared with placebo (RR 0.86, 95% CI 0.39 to 1.88; 238 participants). Comparisons of milrinone with levosimendan or with dobutamine, respectively, did not clarify the risk of arrhythmia and were not possible for pleural effusions or thrombocytopenia.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is insufficient evidence of the effectiveness of prophylactic milrinone in preventing death or low cardiac output syndrome in children undergoing surgery for congenital heart disease, compared to placebo. So far, no differences have been shown between milrinone and other inodilators, such as levosimendan or dobutamine, in the immediate postoperative period, in reducing the risk of LCOS or death. The existing data on the prophylactic use of milrinone has to be viewed cautiously due to the small number of small trials and their risk of bias.