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Lehmair TA, Poschlod P, Reisch C. The impact of environment on genetic and epigenetic variation in Trifolium pratense populations from two contrasting semi-natural grasslands. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2022; 9:211406. [PMID: 35620000 PMCID: PMC9114947 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.211406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Central European grasslands, such as calcareous grasslands and oat-grass meadows, are characterized by diverse environmental conditions and management regimes. Therefore, we aimed to determine potential differences in genetic and epigenetic variation patterns between the contrasting habitats and to identify the drivers of genetic and epigenetic variation. We investigated the genetic and epigenetic variation of the ecologically variable plant species Trifolium pratense L. applying amplified fragment length polymorphism and methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism analyses. We observed low levels of genetic and epigenetic differentiation among populations and between habitat types. Genetic and epigenetic variations were not interdependent. Thus, genetic variation was significantly isolated by habitat dissimilarity, whereas epigenetic variation was affected by environment. More specifically, we observed a significant correlation of epigenetic diversity with soil moisture and soil pH (the latter potentially resulting in phosphorus limitation). Genetic variation was, therefore, affected more strongly by habitat-specific environmental conditions induced by land use-related disturbance and gene flow patterns, while epigenetic variation was driven by challenging environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Anna Lehmair
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, University of Regensburg, Institute of Plant Sciences, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Peter Poschlod
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, University of Regensburg, Institute of Plant Sciences, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Reisch
- Department of Ecology and Conservation Biology, University of Regensburg, Institute of Plant Sciences, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
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2
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Reinula I, Träger S, Hernández‐Agramonte IM, Helm A, Aavik T. Landscape genetic analysis suggests stronger effects of past than current landscape structure on genetic patterns of
Primula veris. DIVERS DISTRIB 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Iris Reinula
- Department of Botany Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
| | - Sabrina Träger
- Department of Botany Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden Martin‐Luther‐University Halle‐Wittenberg Halle (Saale) Germany
| | | | - Aveliina Helm
- Department of Botany Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
| | - Tsipe Aavik
- Department of Botany Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences University of Tartu Tartu Estonia
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Moncalvillo B, Matesanz S, Escudero A, Sánchez AM. Habitat fragmentation and population features differently affect fruit predation, fecundity and offspring performance in a non-specialist gypsum plant. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2021; 23:184-192. [PMID: 32939896 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The effects of habitat fragmentation on plant populations are complex, as it might disrupt many ecological processes, including plant reproduction and plant-animal interactions. Gypsum specialist plants may be resilient to fragmentation due to their evolutionary history in fragmented landscapes, but the effects on non-specialist plants occurring in gypsum are unknown. We conducted a study focusing on different aspects of the reproductive cycle of Astragalus incanus subsp. incanus, a plant facultatively linked to gypsum soils. We focused on plant fecundity and pre-dispersal predation, obtained from field observations, and offspring performance, assessed in a common garden. Beyond fragment size and connectivity, we also considered habitat quality, population size and density and plant size as predictors. Fragment size and connectivity had no effect on plant fecundity, but jointly determined fruit predation, while fragment size was positively related to offspring growth. Population density, rather than population size, had a positive effect on predation but negatively affected plant fecundity and offspring performance. Habitat quality reduced both plant fecundity and predation incidence. In this non-specialist species, habitat fragmentation, population features and habitat quality affect different facets of plant performance. Predation was the only process clearly affected by fragmentation variables, fecundity mainly depended on population features and offspring performance and was better explained by mother plant identity. Our results show the need to consider habitat and population features together with fragment size and connectivity in order to assess the effects of fragmentation. Importantly, these effects can involve different aspects of plant reproduction, including plant-animal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Moncalvillo
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Biology, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - S Matesanz
- Biodiversity and Conservation Unit, Department Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, ESCET, URJC, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - A Escudero
- Biodiversity and Conservation Unit, Department Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, ESCET, URJC, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - A M Sánchez
- Biodiversity and Conservation Unit, Department Biology, Geology, Physics and Inorganic Chemistry, ESCET, URJC, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
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García-Fernández A, Manzano P, Seoane J, Azcárate FM, Iriondo JM, Peco B. Herbivore corridors sustain genetic footprint in plant populations: a case for Spanish drove roads. PeerJ 2019; 7:e7311. [PMID: 31341747 PMCID: PMC6637930 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Habitat fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity conservation and ecosystem productivity mediated by direct human impact. Its consequences include genetic depauperation, comprising phenomena such as inbreeding depression or reduction in genetic diversity. While the capacity of wild and domestic herbivores to sustain long-distance seed dispersal has been proven, the impact of herbivore corridors in plant population genetics remains to be observed. We conducted this study in the Conquense Drove Road in Spain, where sustained use by livestock over centuries has involved transhumant herds passing twice a year en route to winter and summer pastures. We compared genetic diversity and inbreeding coefficients of Plantago lagopus populations along the drove road with populations in the surrounding agricultural matrix, at varying distances from human settlements. We observed significant differences in coefficients of inbreeding between the drove road and the agricultural matrix, as well as significant trends indicative of higher genetic diversity and population nestedness around human settlements. Trends for higher genetic diversity along drove roads may be present, although they were only marginally significant due to the available sample size. Our results illustrate a functional landscape with human settlements as dispersal hotspots, while the findings along the drove road confirm its role as a pollinator reservoir observed in other studies. Drove roads may possibly also function as linear structures that facilitate long-distance dispersal across the agricultural matrix, while local P. lagopus populations depend rather on short-distance seed dispersal. These results highlight the role of herbivore corridors for conserving the migration capacity of plants, and contribute towards understanding the role of seed dispersal and the spread of invasive species related to human activities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pablo Manzano
- Commission on Ecosystem Management, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Nairobi, Kenya.,Terrestrial Ecology Group-Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain.,HELSUS, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Javier Seoane
- Terrestrial Ecology Group-Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco M Azcárate
- Terrestrial Ecology Group-Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Jose M Iriondo
- Área de Biodiversidad y Conservación, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Madrid, Spain
| | - Begoña Peco
- Terrestrial Ecology Group-Departamento de Ecología, Centro de Investigación en Biodiversidad y Cambio Global (CIBC), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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5
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Baltzinger C, Karimi S, Shukla U. Plants on the Move: Hitch-Hiking With Ungulates Distributes Diaspores Across Landscapes. Front Ecol Evol 2019. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Plue J, Aavik T, Cousins SAO. Grazing networks promote plant functional connectivity among isolated grassland communities. DIVERS DISTRIB 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Plue
- Biogeography and Geomatics; Department of Physical Geography; Stockholm University; Stockholm Sweden
- Natural Sciences, Technology and Environmental Studies; Södertörn University; Stockholm Sweden
- Plant Conservation and Population Biology; University of Leuven; Heverlee Belgium
| | - Tsipe Aavik
- Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences; Tartu University; Tartu Estonia
| | - Sara A. O Cousins
- Biogeography and Geomatics; Department of Physical Geography; Stockholm University; Stockholm Sweden
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Liehrmann O, Jégoux F, Guilbert M, Isselin‐Nondedeu F, Saïd S, Locatelli Y, Baltzinger C. Epizoochorous dispersal by ungulates depends on fur, grooming and social interactions. Ecol Evol 2018; 8:1582-1594. [PMID: 29435234 PMCID: PMC5792512 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The transport phase of the animal-mediated plant dispersal process is critical to dispersal effectiveness as it determines the spatial distribution of the diaspores released and their chance for further recruitment. Assessing this specific phase of the dispersal process generally requires combining diaspore retention times with the associated distances covered. Here, we specifically tested the effect of grooming behavior, interindividual contacts and ungulate fur on diaspore retention times and associated dispersal distances for the hooked diaspores of Xanthium strumarium L. experimentally attached to tamed individuals of three ungulate species. We used a comparative approach based on differing fur quality on different body zones of these three ungulates. During 6-hr sessions, we monitored for grooming and social interactions that may induce intended or inadvertent diaspore detachment. Additionally, we proposed innovative approaches to directly assessing diaspore dispersal distances by red deer in situ. Fat-tailed functions fitted diaspore retention time, highlighting the potential for long-distance dispersal events. The longer the hair, the higher the retention capacity of diaspores in the animal's fur. As predicted, donkey retained diaspores longer than red deer and dwarf goat; and we also confirmed that diaspores attached to the short hair of the head fell off more quickly than did those on the other body zones. Dwarf goat groomed more often than both red deer and donkey, but also when it carried diaspores. Up to 14% of the diaspores detached from animal fur after specific grooming behavior. We observed, in controlled conditions, for the first time and for each ungulate species, interindividual transfers of diaspores, representing 5% of the diaspores attached to animals' fur. Our results militate for incorporating animal behavior into plant dispersal modeling approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Océane Liehrmann
- Irstea Centre de Nogent‐sur‐VernissonUnité de Recherche Écosystèmes ForestiersNogent‐sur‐VernissonFrance
| | - Flore Jégoux
- Irstea Centre de Nogent‐sur‐VernissonUnité de Recherche Écosystèmes ForestiersNogent‐sur‐VernissonFrance
- Direction Recherche et ExpertiseUnité Ongulés sauvagesONCFSBirieuxFrance
| | - Marie‐Alice Guilbert
- Irstea Centre de Nogent‐sur‐VernissonUnité de Recherche Écosystèmes ForestiersNogent‐sur‐VernissonFrance
- Département d'Aménagement et d'EnvironnementUMR 7324 CITERESÉcole Polytechnique de l'Université François RabelaisToursFrance
| | - Francis Isselin‐Nondedeu
- Département d'Aménagement et d'EnvironnementUMR 7324 CITERESÉcole Polytechnique de l'Université François RabelaisToursFrance
| | - Sonia Saïd
- Direction Recherche et ExpertiseUnité Ongulés sauvagesONCFSBirieuxFrance
| | | | - Christophe Baltzinger
- Irstea Centre de Nogent‐sur‐VernissonUnité de Recherche Écosystèmes ForestiersNogent‐sur‐VernissonFrance
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Harzé M, Monty A, Boisson S, Pitz C, Hermann JM, Kollmann J, Mahy G. Towards a population approach for evaluating grassland restoration-a systematic review. Restor Ecol 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/rec.12663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Harzé
- Biodiversity and Landscape Unit; Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2; 5030 Gembloux Belgium
| | - Arnaud Monty
- Biodiversity and Landscape Unit; Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2; 5030 Gembloux Belgium
| | - Sylvain Boisson
- Biodiversity and Landscape Unit; Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2; 5030 Gembloux Belgium
| | - Carline Pitz
- Biodiversity and Landscape Unit; Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2; 5030 Gembloux Belgium
| | - Julia-Maria Hermann
- Chair of Restoration Ecology; Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann-Str. 6; 85354 Freising Germany
| | - Johannes Kollmann
- Chair of Restoration Ecology; Technical University of Munich, Emil-Ramann-Str. 6; 85354 Freising Germany
- Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), PO Box 115; 1431 Ås Norway
| | - Grégory Mahy
- Biodiversity and Landscape Unit; Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, University of Liege, Passage des Déportés 2; 5030 Gembloux Belgium
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Reisch C, Schmidkonz S, Meier K, Schöpplein Q, Meyer C, Hums C, Putz C, Schmid C. Genetic diversity of calcareous grassland plant species depends on historical landscape configuration. BMC Ecol 2017; 17:19. [PMID: 28438203 PMCID: PMC5404287 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-017-0129-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Habitat fragmentation is considered to be a main reason for decreasing genetic diversity of plant species. However, the results of many fragmentation studies are inconsistent. This may be due to the influence of habitat conditions, having an indirect effect on genetic variation via reproduction. Consequently we took a comparative approach to analyse the impact of habitat fragmentation and habitat conditions on the genetic diversity of calcareous grassland species in this study. We selected five typical grassland species (Primula veris, Dianthus carthusianorum, Medicago falcata, Polygala comosa and Salvia pratensis) occurring in 18 fragments of calcareous grasslands in south eastern Germany. We sampled 1286 individuals in 87 populations and analysed genetic diversity using amplified fragment length polymorphisms. Additionally, we collected data concerning habitat fragmentation (historical and present landscape structure) and habitat conditions (vegetation structure, soil conditions) of the selected study sites. The whole data set was analysed using Bayesian multiple regressions. Results Our investigation indicated a habitat loss of nearly 80% and increasing isolation between grasslands since 1830. Bayesian analysis revealed a significant impact of the historical landscape structure, whereas habitat conditions played no important role for the present-day genetic variation of the studied plant species. Conclusions Our study indicates that the historical landscape structure may be more important for genetic diversity than present habitat conditions. Populations persisting in abandoned grassland fragments may contribute significantly to the species’ variability even under deteriorating habitat conditions. Therefore, these populations should be included in approaches to preserve the genetic variation of calcareous grassland species. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12898-017-0129-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Reisch
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Sonja Schmidkonz
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Katrin Meier
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Quirin Schöpplein
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Carina Meyer
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christian Hums
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christina Putz
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Regensburg, 93040, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Christoph Schmid
- German Research Center for Environmental Health, Research Group Comparative Microbiome Analysis, Ingolstädter Landstr. 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
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10
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Rico Y, Wagner HH. Reduced fine-scale spatial genetic structure in grazed populations of Dianthus carthusianorum. Heredity (Edinb) 2016; 117:367-374. [PMID: 27381322 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2016.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2015] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Strong spatial genetic structure in plant populations can increase homozygosity, reducing genetic diversity and adaptive potential. The strength of spatial genetic structure largely depends on rates of seed dispersal and pollen flow. Seeds without dispersal adaptations are likely to be dispersed over short distances within the vicinity of the mother plant, resulting in spatial clustering of related genotypes (fine-scale spatial genetic structure, hereafter spatial genetic structure (SGS)). However, primary seed dispersal by zoochory can promote effective dispersal, increasing the mixing of seeds and influencing SGS within plant populations. In this study, we investigated the effects of seed dispersal by rotational sheep grazing on the strength of SGS and genetic diversity using 11 nuclear microsatellites for 49 populations of the calcareous grassland forb Dianthus carthusianorum. Populations connected by rotational sheep grazing showed significantly weaker SGS and higher genetic diversity than populations in ungrazed grasslands. Independent of grazing treatment, small populations showed significantly stronger SGS and lower genetic diversity than larger populations, likely due to genetic drift. A lack of significant differences in the strength of SGS and genetic diversity between populations that were recently colonized and pre-existing populations suggested that populations colonized after the reintroduction of rotational sheep grazing were likely founded by colonists from diverse source populations. We conclude that dispersal by rotational sheep grazing has the potential to considerably reduce SGS within D. carthusianorum populations. Our study highlights the effectiveness of landscape management by rotational sheep grazing to importantly reduce genetic structure at local scales within restored plant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Rico
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.,Centro Regional del Bajío, CONACYT, Instituto Nacional de Ecología, A.C., Avenida Lázaro Cárdenas, Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México
| | - H H Wagner
- Centro Regional del Bajío, CONACYT, Instituto Nacional de Ecología, A.C., Avenida Lázaro Cárdenas, Pátzcuaro, Michoacán, México
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Auffret AG, Plue J, Cousins SAO. The spatial and temporal components of functional connectivity in fragmented landscapes. AMBIO 2015; 44 Suppl 1:S51-9. [PMID: 25576280 PMCID: PMC4289002 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-014-0588-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Connectivity is key for understanding how ecological systems respond to the challenges of land-use change and habitat fragmentation. Structural and functional connectivity are both established concepts in ecology, but the temporal component of connectivity deserves more attention. Whereas functional connectivity is often associated with spatial patterns (spatial functional connectivity), temporal functional connectivity relates to the persistence of organisms in time, in the same place. Both temporal and spatial processes determine biodiversity responses to changes in landscape structure, and it is therefore necessary that all aspects of connectivity are considered together. In this perspective, we use a case study to outline why we believe that both the spatial and temporal components of functional connectivity are important for understanding biodiversity patterns in the present-day landscape, and how they can also help us to make better-informed decisions about conserving and restoring landscapes and improving resilience to future change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair G. Auffret
- Landscape Ecology, Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Plue
- Landscape Ecology, Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sara A. O. Cousins
- Landscape Ecology, Department of Physical Geography and Quaternary Geology, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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12
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Rico Y, Holderegger R, Boehmer HJ, Wagner HH. Directed dispersal by rotational shepherding supports landscape genetic connectivity in a calcareous grassland plant. Mol Ecol 2014; 23:832-42. [PMID: 24451046 DOI: 10.1111/mec.12639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Revised: 12/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Directed dispersal by animal vectors has been found to have large effects on the structure and dynamics of plant populations adapted to frugivory. Yet, empirical data are lacking on the potential of directed dispersal by rotational grazing of domestic animals to mediate gene flow across the landscape. Here, we investigated the potential effect of large-flock shepherding on landscape-scale genetic structure in the calcareous grassland plant Dianthus carthusianorum, whose seeds lack morphological adaptations to dispersal to animals or wind. We found a significant pattern of genetic structure differentiating population within grazed patches of three nonoverlapping shepherding systems and populations of ungrazed patches. Among ungrazed patches, we found a strong and significant effect of isolation by distance (r = 0.56). In contrast, genetic distance between grazed patches within the same herding system was unrelated to geographical distance but significantly related to distance along shepherding routes (r = 0.44). This latter effect of connectivity along shepherding routes suggests that gene flow is spatially restricted occurring mostly between adjacent populations. While this study used nuclear markers that integrate gene flow by pollen and seed, the significant difference in the genetic structure between ungrazed patches and patches connected by large-flock shepherding indicates the potential of directed seed dispersal by sheep across the landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yessica Rico
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, L5L 1C6; Resources DNA Profiling and Forensics Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada, K9J 7B8
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