Testing the presence of marine protected areas against their ability to reduce pressures on biodiversity

A Long-Term Ecological Research Data Set From the Marine Genetic Monitoring Program ARMS-MBON 2018-2020

Molecular methods such as DNA/eDNA metabarcoding have emerged as useful tools to document the biodiversity of complex communities over large spatio-temporal scales. We established an international Marine Biodiversity Observation Network (ARMS-MBON) combining standardised sampling using autonomous reef monitoring structures (ARMS) with metabarcoding for genetic monitoring of marine hard-bottom benthic communities. Here, we present the data of our first sampling campaign comprising 56 ARMS units deployed in 2018-2019 and retrieved in 2018-2020 across 15 observatories along the coasts of Europe and adjacent regions. We describe the open-access data set (image, genetic and metadata) and explore the genetic data to show its potential for marine biodiversity monitoring and ecological research. Our analysis shows that ARMS recovered more than 60 eukaryotic phyla capturing diversity of up to ~5500 amplicon sequence variants and ~1800 operational taxonomic units, and up to ~250 and ~50 species per observatory using the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and 18S rRNA marker genes, respectively. Further, ARMS detected threatened, vulnerable and non-indigenous species often targeted in biological monitoring. We show that while deployment duration does not drive diversity estimates, sampling effort and sequencing depth across observatories do. We recommend that ARMS should be deployed for at least 3-6 months during the main growth season to use resources as efficiently as possible and that post-sequencing curation is applied to enable statistical comparison of spatio-temporal entities. We suggest that ARMS should be used in biological monitoring programs and long-term ecological research and encourage the adoption of our ARMS-MBON protocols.

Segmentation by recreation experiences of demand in coastal and marine destinations: A study in Galapagos, Ecuador

Tourism in coastal and marine areas offers a wide variety of recreational activities. The present study had the following objectives: (i), identify the dimensions of recreational experiences in coastal and marine destinations focused on island marine protected areas (ii) determine the demand segments for recreational experiences, and (iii) establish the relationship between the demand segments for recreational experiences and the satisfaction and loyalty. The study was conducted in the Galápagos Islands of Ecuador, and 407 valid questionnaires were collected on-site. The statistical techniques used were factor analysis and the non-hierarchical k-means clustering method. The results reveal four dimensions of the recreational experience in coastal and marine destinations focused on island marine protected areas: Ecological Observation, Experiential Learning, Experiential Reflection, and Sensory Experience. Additionally, three demand segments differentiated by recreational experiences were identified: The Estheticians, the Multi-Experience Recreationists, and the Hedonists. Among these groups, the Multi-Experience Recreationists segment was the most satisfied and exhibited higher levels of loyalty in insular protected marine areas. These findings will assist managers of protected marine areas in creating sustainable development plans and contribute to the academic literature on coastal and marine tourism.

Beyond the surface: Seabirds and plastics as indicators in a large, remote marine protected area

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are an important conservation tool for species and habitats; however, they are not a panacea solution. For example, MPAs provide little protection from plastic pollution which travels vast distances on ocean currents. Here we document exposure of juvenile Christmas Shearwaters (Puffinus nativitatis) to plastics on uninhabited Ducie Atoll in the remote South Pacific. Despite being surrounded by the very large Pitcairn Islands MPA, most birds (68.7 %; n = 16) contained 3.8 ± 4.1 pieces of ingested plastic. Unexpectedly, the number, mass and frequency of occurrence of plastic in two age classes (young downy chicks and fledglings) was similar. While the reason for this is unknown, it may suggest birds do not acquire new plastic items, or are able to rid themselves of plastics, beyond a certain age. We discuss the potential health consequences of plastic ingestion in Christmas Shearwaters and call for further research of this poorly studied species.

3D ocean assessments reveal that fisheries reach deep but marine protection remains shallow

The wave of new global conservation targets, the conclusion of the High Seas Treaty negotiations, and the expansion of extractive use into the deep sea call for a paradigm shift in ocean conservation. The current reductionist 2D representation of the ocean to set targets and measure impacts will fail at achieving effective biodiversity conservation. Here, we develop a framework that overlays depth realms onto marine ecoregions to conduct the first three-dimensional spatial analysis of global marine conservation achievements and fisheries footprint. Our novel approach reveals conservation gaps of mesophotic, rariphotic, and abyssal depths and an underrepresentation of high protection levels across all depths. In contrast, the 3D footprint of fisheries covers all depths, with benthic fishing occurring down to the lower bathyal and mesopelagic fishing peaking in areas overlying abyssal depths. Additionally, conservation efforts are biased towards areas where the lowest fishing pressures occur, compromising the effectiveness of the marine conservation network. These spatial mismatches emphasize the need to shift towards 3D thinking to achieve ocean sustainability.

Evaluating ecological benefits of oceanic protected areas

Oceans beyond the continental shelf represent the largest yet least protected environments. The new agreement to increase protection targets to 30% by 2030 and the recent United Nations (UN) High Seas Treaty try to address this gap, and an increase in the declaration of oceanic Marine Protected Areas (oMPAs) in waters beyond 200 m in depth is likely. Here we find that there is contradictory evidence concerning the benefits of oMPAs in terms of protecting pelagic habitats, providing refuge for highly mobile species, and potential fisheries benefits. We discover a mismatch between oMPA management objectives focusing on protection of pelagic habitats and biodiversity, and scientific research focusing on fisheries benefits. We suggest that the solution is to harness emerging technologies to monitor inside and outside oMPAs.

Identifying management opportunities to combat climate, land, and marine threats across less climate exposed coral reefs

Conserving coral reefs is critical for maintaining marine biodiversity, protecting coastlines, and supporting livelihoods in many coastal communities. Climate change threatens coral reefs globally, but researchers have identified a portfolio of coral reefs (bioclimatic units [BCUs]) that are relatively less exposed to climate impacts and strongly connected to other coral reef systems. These reefs provide a proactive opportunity to secure a long-term future for coral reefs under climate change. To help guide local management efforts, we quantified marine cumulative human impact (CHI) from climate, marine, and land pressures (2013 and from 2008 to 2013) in BCUs and across countries tasked with BCU management. Additionally, we created a management index based on common management measures and policies for each pressure source (climate, marine, and land) to identify a country's intent and commitment to effectively manage these pressures. Twenty-two countries (79%) had increases in CHI from 2008 to 2013. Climate change pressures had the highest proportional contribution to CHI across all reefs and in all but one country (Singapore), but 18 BCUs (35%) and nine countries containing BCUs (32%) had relatively high land and marine impacts. There was a significant positive relationship between climate impact and the climate management index across countries (R² = 0.43, p = 0.02), potentially signifying that countries with greater climate impacts are more committed to managing them. However, this trend was driven by climate management intent in Fiji and Bangladesh. Our results can be used to guide future fine-scale analyses, national policies, and local management decisions, and our management indices reveal areas where management components can be improved. Cost-effectively managing local pressures (e.g., fishing and nutrients) in BCUs is essential for building a climate-ready future that benefits coral reefs and people.

Differential gene expression and chemical patterns of an intertidal crab inhabiting a polluted port and an adjacent marine protected area

The acquisition of data to safeguard marine protected areas located close to ports is important in order to develop plans that allow effective protection from pollution as well as sustainable development of the port. The area Secche della Meloria is a Marine Protected Area (MPA-MEL) three miles from Livorno Harbour (LH), which is characterized by a long history of pollution. Here we studied the bioaccumulation and transcriptomic patterns of the marbled crab, Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Fabricius, 1787) (Crustacea; Brachyura, Grapsidae), inhabiting the two selected sites. Results showed that the two crab populations are significantly different in their chemical composition of trace elements and Polyciclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), and gene expression patterns (1280 DEGs). Enrichment analysis indicated that crabs at LH had the highest stress response genes, and they were associated with higher levels of bioaccumulation detected in body tissues. We are confident that the significant differential gene expression profiles observed between crabs, characterized by significant chemical differences, is associated with responses to contaminant exposure.