The biodiversity benefit of native forests and mixed‐species plantations over monoculture plantations

Synergizing population structure, habitat preferences, and ecological drivers for conservation of Cedrus deodara

BACKGROUND

Climate change is impacting forest tree species adversely and making the ecological system vulnerable. The Himalayan cedar (Cedrus deodara), a keystone species in Western Himalayan forests, plays an important ecological role but is under increasing threats from natural and anthropogenic pressures. The current study analyses the population structure, spatial distribution, environmental factors, and future conservation strategies for Himalayan cedar populations in the Kashmir Himalayas.

METHODS

Field sampling was carried out between 2023 and 2024 in various districts of the Kashmir Himalayas. The quadrat method was used to record the vegetation data across an elevational gradient ranging from 1300 to 2700 m. GIS and spatial analysis were used to map population distribution while, cluster analysis was performed to identify species associations. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) was applied to identify the influence of environmental factors while, Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) and SIMPER analysis were used to investigate inter-association dissimilarity.

RESULTS

The populations showed an average stem density of 110.73 trees/ha and low regeneration rates, with just 15 seedlings per ha on average. Stump density (mean: 90.62 stumps/ha) demonstrated human-induced pressures. GIS and spatial analysis revealed that Cedar populations were mostly found at altitudes ranging from 1900 to 2200 m, with a preference for north-facing slopes. Cluster analysis identified four distinct species associations in which each with a different species richness and ecological composition. Association 3 was the most diverse (Shannon index: 3.31 ± 0.05), while Association 4 showed the highest dominance (0.062 ± 0.002). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) identified altitude and timber extraction as the key drivers of variation, accounting for 16.2% and 15.2% of the distribution variance, respectively. Grazing, erosion, and fire accelerated the degradation of habitat. Cedar density was influenced by various edaphic parameters, with total nitrogen (R2 = 0.11) and soil moisture (R2 = 0.09) demonstrating the strongest association. Soil pH, electrical conductivity, and total phosphorus exhibited minimal or negligible effects. Associations 1 and 2 were associated with increased soil pH and electrical conductivity, but Associations 3 and 4 were influenced more by nutrient-rich and moisture-retentive soils. Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling (NMDS) and SIMPER analysis identified a 56.99% dissimilarity between associations, mostly driven by species such as Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana and Viburnum grandiflorum.

CONCLUSION

The study reveals that Himalayan cedar populations in the Kashmir Himalayas face low regeneration rates and significant anthropogenic pressure. Their distribution is influenced by various factors, including altitude, timber extraction, soil nitrogen, moisture, grazing, erosion, and fire. These findings highlight the necessity for targeted conservation strategies. Future conservation strategies should encompass controlled grazing, regulated timber extraction, soil conservation measures, anti-logging policies, ecotourism initiatives, and collaboration among local communities and policymakers.

Influence of habitat management and selected environmental parameters on the ground-living communities of harvestmen (Opiliones) in the historical park in Rusovce (Slovakia)

City parks serve as valuable refuges for invertebrates in the urban environment, which are constantly exposed to human influence caused by management practices in the parks. Many harvestman species are suitable bioindicators for monitoring ecological change; however, their effective use in environmental assessment necessitates to expand the insufficient knowledge of ecological environmental specificities of their communities. We studied the diversity and dynamics of harvestman (Opiliones) communities in the historical park in Rusovce, situated in the southwestern part of Bratislava (Slovakia). Seven study sites were investigated, representing areas subjected to different management practices. The research was conducted from March 2019 to April 2020, using pitfall traps. We evaluated the impact of microclimatic variables (soil and air temperature), environmental characteristics (plant diversity and cover of vegetation layers, age of forest stands, thickness of the litter layer), and management practices on the structure of harvestman communities. The study revealed the response of specific harvestman species to temperature variations, emphasizing the importance of microclimatic conditions. Environmental variables, such as the richness of plant species in the shrub layer, the cover of the herb and shrub vegetation layers, and the age of the forest stands, were identified as key factors that influence the dispersal of harvestman species. Furthermore, management practices, especially the presence of monoculture tree plantations, significantly affected the species composition of harvestmen. Examining the sensitivity of Opiliones, important bioindicators, to these factors is crucial for implementing effective conservation strategies in urban green spaces and anthropogenically influenced ecosystems.

Soil conditions are a more important determinant of microbial community composition and functional potential than neighboring plant diversity

Replanting is an important tool for ecological recovery. Management strategies, such as planting areas with monocultures or species mixtures, have implications for restoration success. We used 16S and ITS rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and shotgun metagenomics to assess how the diversity of neighboring tree species impacted soil bacterial and fungal communities, and their functional potential, within the root zone of mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium) trees. We compared data from monoculture and mixed tree species plots and confirmed that soil microbial taxonomic and functional community profiles significantly differed (p < 0.001). Compared to the diversity of neighboring tree species within the plot, soil environmental conditions and geographic distance was more important for structuring the microbial communities. The bacterial communities appeared more impacted by soil conditions, while the fungal communities displayed stronger spatial structuring, possibly due to wider bacterial dispersal. The different mechanisms structuring bacterial and fungal communities could have implications for ecological restoration outcomes.

Metabarcoding reveals that mixed forests mitigate negative effects of non-native trees on canopy arthropod diversity

Averting climate change-induced forest diebacks increasingly relies on tree species planted outside of their natural range and on the addition of non-native tree species to mixed-species forests. However, the consequences of such changes for associated biodiversity remain poorly understood, especially for the forest canopy as a largely understudied forest stratum. Here, we used flight interception traps and a metabarcoding approach to study the taxonomic and functional (trophic guilds) composition and taxon richness of canopy arthropods. We sampled 15 monospecific and mixed stands of native European beech, native Norway spruce-planted outside its natural range-and non-native Douglas fir in northwest Germany. We found that the diversity of arthropods was lower in non-native Douglas fir compared with native beech stands. Taxon richness of herbivores was reduced by both conifer species. Other functional guilds, however, were not affected by stand type. Arthropod composition differed strongly between native broadleaved beech and monospecific coniferous (native spruce or non-native Douglas fir) stands, with less pronounced differences between the native and non-native conifers. Beech-conifer mixtures consistently hosted intermediate arthropod diversity and community composition compared with the respective monospecific stands. Moreover, arthropod diversity had a positive relationship with the number of canopy microhabitats. Our study shows that considering arthropod taxa of multiple functional groups reveals the multifaceted impact of non-native tree species on forest canopy arthropod communities. Contrasting with previous studies that primarily focused on the forest floor, we found that native beech hosts a rich diversity of arthropods, compared with lower diversity and distinct communities in economically attractive, and especially in non-native, conifers with few canopy microhabitats. Broadleaf-conifer mixtures did not perform better than native beech stands, but mitigated the negative effects of conifers, making such mixtures a compromise to foster both forest-associated diversity and economic yield.

Bottom-up and top-down pressures mediate competition between two generalist insects

The effects of competition can have far-reaching consequences for individuals, populations, and communities and therefore we should strive toward a deeper understanding of competitive interactions. In some cases, dietary generalists may be predicted to experience weak competition effects because of their ability to use a wide range of host plants. However, competition between insects frequently occurs indirectly, which can hinder insects' abilities to avoid competitive interactions. Therefore, competition may be as strong among dietary generalists as among dietary specialists. Yet competition between insects that are dietary generalists is infrequently studied. We tested for evidence of competitive interactions between two common, temporally separated, generalist insects: the western tent caterpillar (Malacosoma californicum), which feeds early in the season, and the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea), which feeds later in the season. Both species frequently use a common host plant species (chokecherry) as a preferred host at our field sites. We tested the relative strength of bottom-up effects resulting from competitive interactions between these two generalists with laboratory-rearing trials at the relevant time of year for each insect. We recorded three common fitness measures (development time, pupal mass, and survival) for caterpillars reared on chokecherry with no damage from either of our focal species, with tent caterpillar damage, and with fall webworm damage. To test the strength of top-down pressures on fall webworm larval fitness and any potential interactions with bottom-up effects, we reared larvae in the field either exposed to or protected from predators on host plants that either did or did not have tent caterpillars feeding on them earlier in the season. We found evidence of bottom-up fitness effects on tent caterpillars and top-down and bottom-up fitness effects on fall webworms confirming that tent caterpillars and fall webworms compete indirectly. Tent caterpillars had lower pupal mass when reared on leaves from shrubs damaged by fall webworms. Fall webworms had lower pupal mass and longer development time when reared on leaves from shrubs damaged by tent caterpillars. In field trials, fall webworms reared on shrubs damaged by tent caterpillars had a lower survival and pupal mass. We show evidence of indirect competition in temporally separated generalists through leaf quality (bottom-up effects) and natural enemies (top-down effects).

Result of a year-long animal survey in a state-owned forest farm in Beijing, China

Background Artificial forest can have great potential in serving as habitat to wildlife, depending on different management methods. As the state-owned forest farms now play a new role in ecological conservation in China, the biological richness of this kind of land-use type is understudied. Once owned by a mining company, a largest state-owned forest farm, Jingxi Forest Farm, has been reformed to be a state-owned forest farm with the purpose of conservation since 2017. Although this 116.4 km² forest farm holds a near-healthy montaine ecosystem very representative in North China, a large proportion of artificial coniferous forest in the forest farm has been proven to hold less biodiversity than natural vegetation. This situation, however, provides a great opportunity for ecological restoration and biodiversity conservation. Therefore, from November 2019 to December 2020, we conducted a set of biodiversity surveys, whose results will serve as a baseline for further restoration and conservation. New information Here, we report the result of a multi-taxa fauna diversity survey conducted in Jingxi Forest Farm mainly in year 2020 with explicit spatial information. It is the first survey of its kind conducted in this area, revealing a total of 19 species of mammals, 86 birds, four reptiles, two amphibians and one fish species, as well as 101 species of insects. Four species of mammals are identified as data-poor species as they have less than 100 occurrence records with coordination in the GBIF database. One species of insect, representing one new provincial record genus of Beijing, is reported.

Agriculture and climate change are reshaping insect biodiversity worldwide

Several previous studies have investigated changes in insect biodiversity, with some highlighting declines and others showing turnover in species composition without net declines^1-5. Although research has shown that biodiversity changes are driven primarily by land-use change and increasingly by climate change^6,7, the potential for interaction between these drivers and insect biodiversity on the global scale remains unclear. Here we show that the interaction between indices of historical climate warming and intensive agricultural land use is associated with reductions of almost 50% in the abundance and 27% in the number of species within insect assemblages relative to those in less-disturbed habitats with lower rates of historical climate warming. These patterns are particularly evident in the tropical realm, whereas some positive responses of biodiversity to climate change occur in non-tropical regions in natural habitats. A high availability of nearby natural habitat often mitigates reductions in insect abundance and richness associated with agricultural land use and substantial climate warming but only in low-intensity agricultural systems. In such systems, in which high levels (75% cover) of natural habitat are available, abundance and richness were reduced by 7% and 5%, respectively, compared with reductions of 63% and 61% in places where less natural habitat is present (25% cover). Our results show that insect biodiversity will probably benefit from mitigating climate change, preserving natural habitat within landscapes and reducing the intensity of agriculture.

Assessing effects of the Returning Farmland to Forest Program on vegetation cover changes at multiple spatial scales: The case of northwest Yunnan, China

Chinese state authorities have successfully accelerated afforestation over large areas through the Returning Farmland to Forest Program (RFFP). However, variation in the implementation of the RFFP among villages may lead to uncertainty in forest transitions at multiple spatial levels. Here, we combined remote sensing analysis with field quadrats and questionnaire surveys to assess the RFFP's effectiveness in increasing vegetation cover at the Lancang watershed, township and natural village levels in Weixi County, a biodiversity hotspot in northwest Yunnan. From 2000 to 2010 and 2010 to 2014, forest coverage increased, and areas of shrubland and agricultural land decreased at both watershed and township levels, which reflected a positive impact of the RFFP. However, the new forests established under the RFFP in the study area mostly consisted of monocultures of walnut and pine trees, a situation that could threaten local biodiversity. Changes in forest and shrub coverage varied among natural villages-gain and loss trends both occurred, indicating a limited impact of the RFFP. Nonparticipating RFFP households also abandoned cropland, and agricultural land area in these villages declined over the study period. At the watershed and township levels, RFFP greatly promoted increases in forest coverage. Elevation, the behavior of village officials and household livelihoods were often the most relevant factors at the natural village level. Interactions among these multiple drivers resulted in cross-scale heterogeneity of vegetation cover changes in northwest Yunnan. Future forest policies need to be tailored to specific regions and be based on assessments of local natural and socioeconomic conditions.

Suitability of a dual COI marker for marine zooplankton DNA metabarcoding

As DNA metabarcoding has become an emerging tool for surveying biodiversity, including its application in legally binding assessments, reliable and efficient barcodes are requested, especially for the highly diverse group of zooplankton. This study focuses on comparing the efficiency of two mitochondrial COI barcodes based on the internal primers mlCOIintF and mlCOIintR utilizing mesozooplankton samples collected in a Mediterranean lagoon. Our results indicate that after a slight adjustment, the mlCOIintR primer performs in combination with jdgLCO1490 (herein) very comparably to the much more widely used primer system mlCOIintF/jgHCO2198+dgHCO2198, in terms of level of taxonomic resolution, species detection and their relative abundance in terms of numbers of reads. As for some groups, like Ctenophora, this barcode is not suitable; a combination of them may be the best option to rely on the Folmer region in its entirety without the risk of losing information for a limited primer match.

Facilitation in the soil microbiome does not necessarily lead to niche expansion

BACKGROUND

The soil microbiome drives soil ecosystem function, and soil microbial functionality is directly linked to interactions between microbes and the soil environment. However, the context-dependent interactions in the soil microbiome remain largely unknown.

RESULTS

Using latent variable models (LVMs), we disentangle the biotic and abiotic interactions of soil bacteria, fungi and environmental factors using the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau soil ecosystem as a model. Our results show that soil bacteria and fungi not only interact with each other but also shift from competition to facilitation or vice versa depending on environmental variation; that is, the nature of their interactions is context-dependent.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, elevation is the environmental gradient that most promotes facilitative interactions among microbes but is not a major driver of soil microbial community composition, as evidenced by variance partitioning. The larger the tolerance of a microbe to a specific environmental gradient, the lesser likely it is to interact with other soil microbes, which suggests that facilitation does not necessarily lead to niche expansion.

DNA-Based Arthropod Diversity Assessment in Amazonian Iron Mine Lands Show Ecological Succession Towards Undisturbed Reference Sites

Human activities change natural landscapes, and in doing so endanger biodiversity and associated ecosystem services. To reduce the net impacts of these activities, such as mining, disturbed areas are rehabilitated and restored. During this process, monitoring is important to ensure that desired trajectories are maintained. In the Carajás region of the Brazilian Amazon, exploration for iron ores has transformed the original ecosystem; natural forest and a savanna formation with lateritic iron duricrust outcrops named canga. Here, native vegetation is logged and topsoil removed and deposited in waste piles along with mine waste. During rehabilitation, these waste piles are hydroseeded with non-native plant species to achieve rapid revegetation. Further, seeds of native canga and forest plant species are planted to point ecological succession towards natural ecosystems. In this study, we investigate diversity and composition of the arthropod community along a post-mining rehabilitation and restoration gradient, taking seasonality and primer bias into account. We use DNA metabarcoding of bulk arthropod samples collected in both the dry and rainy seasons from waste-pile benches at various stages of revegetation: non-revegetated exposed soils, initial stage with one-to-three-year-old stands, intermediate stage with four-to-five-year-old stands, and advanced stage with six-to-seven-year-old stands. We use samples from undisturbed cangas and forests as reference sites. In addition, we vegetation diversity and structure were measured to investigate relations between arthropod community and vegetation structure. Our results show that, over time, the arthropod community composition of the waste piles becomes more similar to the reference forests, but not to the reference cangas. Nevertheless, even the communities in the advanced-stage waste piles are different from the reference forests, and full restoration in these highly diverse ecosystems is not achieved, even after 6 to 7 years. Finally, our results show seasonal variation in arthropod communities and primer bias.

Modeling Height–Diameter Relationships for Mixed-Species Plantations of Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr. and Larix olgensis Henry in Northeastern China

The mixture of tree species has gradually become the focus of forest research, especially native species mixing. Mixed-species plantations of Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.) and Changbai larch (Larix olgensis Henry) have successfully been cultivated in Northeast China. Height–diameter (H–D) models were found to be effective in designing the silvicultural planning for mixed-species plantations. Thus, this study aimed to develop a new system of H–D models for juvenile ash and larch mixed-species plantations, based on competition information and tree and stand attributes. The leave-one-out cross-validation was utilized for model validation. The result showed that the H–D relationship was affected not only by the tree attributes (i.e., tree size and competition information) but also by stand characteristics, such as site quality and species proportion of basal area. The best model explained more than 80% and 85% variation of the tree height of ash and larch, respectively. Moreover, model validation also confirmed the high accuracy of the newly developed model’s predictions. We also found that, in terms of total tree height, ash in middle rows were higher than those in side rows, while larch in the middle rows were higher in the early growth period but then became lower than those in the side rows, as the diameter increased. The newly established H–D models would be useful for forestry inventory practice and have the potential to aid decisions in mixed-species plantations of ash and larch.

Horizon Scan of the Belt and Road Initiative

The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) represents the largest infrastructure and development project in human history, and presents risks and opportunities for ecosystems, economies, and communities. Some risks (habitat fragmentation, roadkill) are obvious, however, many of the BRI's largest challenges for development and conservation are not obvious and require extensive consideration to identify. In this first BRI Horizon Scan, we identify 11 frontier issues that may have large environmental and social impacts but are not yet recognised. More generally, the BRI will increase China's participation in international environmental governance. Thus, new cooperative modes of governance are needed to balance geopolitical, societal, and environmental interests. Upgrading and standardising global environmental standards is essential to safeguard ecological systems and human societies.