Increased mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme activities correlate with minor extent of liver damage in mice suffering from erythropoietic protoporphyria

Retinal Phenotyping of Ferrochelatase Mutant Mice Reveals Protoporphyrin Accumulation and Reduced Neovascular Response

Purpose

Heme depletion, through inhibition of ferrochelatase (FECH), blocks retinal and choroidal neovascularization. Both pharmacologic FECH inhibition and a partial loss-of-function Fech mutation (Fech^m1Pas) are associated with decreased neovascularization. However, the ocular physiology of Fech^m1Pas mice under basal conditions has not been characterized. Here, we aimed to characterize the retinal phenotype of Fech^m1Pas mice.

Methods

We monitored retinal vasculature at postnatal day 17, 2 months, and 6 months in Fech^m1Pas homozygotes, heterozygotes, and their wild-type littermates. We characterized Fech substrate protoporphyrin (PPIX) fluorescence in the eye (excitation = 403 nm, emission = 628 nm), retinal function by electroretinogram, visual acuity by optomotor reflex, and retinal morphology by optical coherence tomography and histology. We stained vasculature using isolectin B4 and fluorescein angiography. We determined endothelial sprouting of retinal and choroidal tissue ex vivo and bioenergetics of retinal punches using a Seahorse flux analyzer.

Results

Fundi, retinal vasculature, venous width, and arterial tortuosity showed no aberrations. However, VEGF-induced retinal and choroidal sprouting was decreased in Fech^m1Pas mutants. Homozygous Fech^m1Pas mice had pronounced buildup of PPIX in the posterior eye with no damage to visual function, bioenergetics, and integrity of retinal layers.

Conclusions

Even with a buildup of PPIX in the retinal vessels in Fech^m1Pas homozygotes, the vasculature remains normal. Notably, stimulus-induced ex vivo angiogenesis was decreased in Fech^m1Pas mutants, consistent with reduced pathologic angiogenesis seen previously in neovascular animal models. Our findings indicate that Fech^m1Pas mice are a useful model for studying the effects of heme deficiency on neovascularization due to Fech blockade.

Heme Synthesis Inhibition Blocks Angiogenesis via Mitochondrial Dysfunction

The relationship between heme metabolism and angiogenesis is poorly understood. The final synthesis of heme occurs in mitochondria, where ferrochelatase (FECH) inserts Fe²⁺ into protoporphyrin IX to produce proto-heme IX. We previously showed that FECH inhibition is antiangiogenic in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells (HRECs) and in animal models of ocular neovascularization. In the present study, we sought to understand the mechanism of how FECH and thus heme is involved in endothelial cell function. Mitochondria in endothelial cells had several defects in function after heme inhibition. FECH loss changed the shape and mass of mitochondria and led to significant oxidative stress. Oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial Complex IV were decreased in HRECs and in murine retina ex vivo after heme depletion. Supplementation with heme partially rescued phenotypes of FECH blockade. These findings provide an unexpected link between mitochondrial heme metabolism and angiogenesis.

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Heme synthesis inhibition changes mitochondrial morphology in endothelial cells

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Loss of heme causes buildup of mitochondrial ROS and depolarized membrane potential

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Endothelial cells have damaged oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis on heme loss

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Damage is due to loss of heme-containing Complex IV, restored by exogenous heme

Pro-oxidant effect of ALA is implicated in mitochondrial dysfunction of HepG2 cells

Heme biosynthesis begins in the mitochondrion with the formation of delta-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). In acute intermittent porphyria, hereditary tyrosinemia type I and lead poisoning patients, ALA is accumulated in plasma and in organs, especially the liver. These diseases are also associated with neuromuscular dysfunction and increased incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma. Many studies suggest that this damage may originate from ALA-induced oxidative stress following its accumulation. Using the MnSOD as an oxidative stress marker, we showed here that ALA treatment of cultured cells induced ROS production, increasing with ALA concentration. The mitochondrial energetic function of ALA-treated HepG2 cells was further explored. Mitochondrial respiration and ATP content were reduced compared to control cells. For the 300 μM treatment, ALA induced a mitochondrial mass decrease and a mitochondrial network imbalance although neither necrosis nor apoptosis were observed. The up regulation of PGC-1, Tfam and ND5 genes was also found; these genes encode mitochondrial proteins involved in mitochondrial biogenesis activation and OXPHOS function. We propose that ALA may constitute an internal bioenergetic signal, which initiates a coordinated upregulation of respiratory genes, which ultimately drives mitochondrial metabolic adaptation within cells. The addition of an antioxidant, Manganese(III) tetrakis(1-methyl-4-pyridyl)porphyrin (MnTMPyP), resulted in improvement of maximal respiratory chain capacity with 300 μM ALA. Our results suggest that mitochondria, an ALA-production site, are more sensitive to pro-oxidant effect of ALA, and may be directly involved in pathophysiology of patients with inherited or acquired porphyria.

Transition between acute and chronic hepatotoxicity in mice is associated with impaired energy metabolism and induction of mitochondrial heme oxygenase-1

The formation of protein inclusions is frequently associated with chronic metabolic diseases. In mice, short-term intoxication with 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC) leads to hepatocellular damage indicated by elevated serum liver enzyme activities, whereas only minor morphological changes are observed. Conversely, chronic administration of DDC for several weeks results in severe morphological damage, characterized by hepatocellular ballooning, disruption of the intermediate filament cytoskeleton, and formation of Mallory-Denk bodies consisting predominantly of misfolded keratins, Sqstm1/p62, and heat shock proteins. To evaluate the mechanistic underpinnings for this dichotomy we dissected the time-course of DDC intoxication for up to 10 weeks. We determined body weight change, serum liver enzyme activities, morphologic alterations, induction of antioxidant response (heme oxygenase-1, HO-1), oxidative damage and ATP content in livers as well as respiration, oxidative damage and the presence and activity of HO-1 in endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria (mtHO-1). Elevated serum liver enzyme activity and oxidative liver damage were already present at early intoxication stages without further subsequent increase. After 2 weeks of intoxication, mice had transiently lost 9% of their body weight, liver ATP-content was reduced to 58% of controls, succinate-driven respiration was uncoupled from ATP-production and antioxidant response was associated with the appearance of catalytically active mtHO-1. Oxidative damage was associated with both acute and chronic DDC toxicity whereas the onset of chronic intoxication was specifically associated with mitochondrial dysfunction which was maximal after 2 weeks of intoxication. At this transition stage, adaptive responses involving mtHO-1 were induced, indirectly leading to improved respiration and preventing further drop of ATP levels. Our observations clearly demonstrate principally different mechanisms for acute and chronic toxic damage.

Level of Expression of the NonmutantFerrochelataseAllele is a Determinant of Biochemical Phenotype in a Mouse Model of Erythropoietic Protoporphyria

Ferrochelatase (FECH) activity is decreased in erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), causing increased production and excretion of protoporphyrin. This study examined whether the level of expression of the nonmutant FECH allele is a determinant of phenotype in a mouse model of EPP that carries a heterozygous deletion of exon 10 in FECH. Two mice strains that had a two-fold difference in FECH mRNA levels in bone marrow and liver (low expressing C3H/HeJ and high expressing CBA/J) were used to establish congenic strains containing the mutation. Erythrocyte protoporphyrin levels in C3H/HeJ heterozygous mice were significantly higher than in their wildtype littermates, whereas levels in CBA/J heterozygous mice did not differ significantly from their wildtype littermates. Biliary excretion of protoporphyrin was also significantly higher in C3H/HeJ heterozygous mice. The levels of normal FECH mRNA in bone marrow measured by real time PCR were 138 +/− 30 copies per ug total RNA in C3H/HeJ +/− mice, 320 +/− 59 in C3H/HeJ +/+ mice and 634 +/− 38 in CBA/J +/+ mice. Levels in liver tissue of the mice differed significantly in the same pattern. Thus, the level of expression of the nonmutant FECH allele is a determinant of phenotype in a mouse model of EPP as has been demonstrated in human EPP.

Characterization of the Drosophila melanogaster mitochondrial proteome

We have combined high-resolution two-dimensional (2-D) gel electrophoresis with mass spectrometry with the aim of identifying proteins represented in the 2-D gel database of Drosophila melanogaster mitochondria. First, we purified mitochondria from third instar Drosophila larvae and constructed a high-resolution 2-D gel database containing 231 silver-stained polypeptides. Next, we carried out preparative 2-D PAGE to isolate some of the polypeptides and characterize them by MALDI-TOF analysis. Using this strategy, we identified 66 mitochondrial spots in the database, and in each case confirmed their identity by MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis. In addition, we generated antibodies against two of the mitochondrial proteins as tools for characterizing the organelle.

Heme Deficiency Is Associated with Senescence and Causes Suppression ofN-Methyl-d-aspartate Receptor Subunits Expression in Primary Cortical Neurons

Heme is a crucial component of many pharmacological and toxicological processes, and studies have suggested that heme deficiency may play a role in cellular ageing. A model of ageing neurons was established using prolonged cultures of BALB/c mouse primary cortical neurons. Aged neurons displayed a senescent phenotype and a marked up-regulation of cathepsin-L expression. Down-regulation of the candidate neuron-specific genes for N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits (NMDAzeta1 and -epsilon2) and neurofilament light peptide (NF-L) were found to be characteristic of the aging process as reported in vivo (Brain Res 907:71-83, 2001; Brain Res Mol Brain Res 99:40-45, 2002). In contrast, the genes for the controlling enzymes of heme synthesis and degradation (5-aminolevulinate synthase 1 and heme oxygenase 1, respectively) were up-regulated, implying depletion of a regulatory heme pool. Inhibition of heme synthesis (by 70-80%) at different enzymic steps by succinyl acetone and N-methylprotoporphyrin IX resulted in the earlier lowered expression of NMDAzeta1 and -epsilon2 and NF-L. Exogenous hemin added to heme-depleted cells rescued the expression of these neuron-specific genes. Culture of cortical neurons from BALB/c Fech(m1Pas) mutant mice demonstrating depressed heme synthesis showed premature senescence and reduced expression of NMDAzeta1 and -epsilon2 receptor subunits and NF-L compared with wild-type cells. Our findings suggest that reduced availability of heme in neurons associated with senescence may have significant effects on synaptic function.

A mouse model provides evidence that genetic background modulates anemia and liver injury in erythropoietic protoporphyria

Erythropoietic protoporphyria is an inherited disorder of heme biosynthesis caused by partial ferrochelatase deficiency, resulting in protoporphyrin (PP) overproduction by erythrocytes. In humans, it is responsible for painful skin photosensitivity and, occasionally, liver failure due to accumulation of PP in the liver. The ferrochelatase deficiency mouse mutation is the best animal model available for human erythropoietic protoporphyria. The original description, based on mice with a BALB/cByJCrl genetic background, reported a disease resembling the severe form of the human disease, with anemia, jaundice, and liver failure. Using congenic strains, we investigated the effect of genetic background on the severity of the phenotype. Compared with BALB/cByJCrl, C57BL/6JCrl mice developed moderate but increasing anemia and intense liver accumulation of PP with severe hepatocyte damage and loss. Bile excretory function was not affected, and bilirubin remained low. Despite the highest PP concentration in erythrocytes, anemia was mild and there were few PP deposits in the liver in SJL/JOrlCrl homozygotes. Discriminant analysis using six hematologic and biochemical parameters showed that homozygotes of the three genetic backgrounds could be clustered in three well-separated groups. These three congenic strains provide strong evidence for independent genetic control of bone marrow contribution of PP overproduction to development of liver disease and biliary PP excretion. They provide a tool to investigate the physiological mechanisms involved in these phenotypic differences and to identify modifying genes.