Overexpression of TRIM44 contributes to malignant outcome in gastric carcinoma

Alteration in Expression of Trim29, TRIM37, TRIM44, and β-Catenin Genes After Irradiation in Human Cells with Different Radiosensitivity

Introduction: Radiotherapy is a crucial component of treatment for ∼70% of all cancer patients. The identification of effective biomarkers of radiosensitivity (RS) is a fundamental goal of radiobiology. The authors hypothesize that the RS of human normal and tumoral cells is correlated by the level of expression of TRIM29, TRIM37, TRIM44, and β-catenin genes. Materials and Methods: Clonogenic assay was performed and RS of four cell lines was determined by survival fraction at 2 Gy. To determine the level of gene expression 6 and 24 h after irradiation, RNA was extracted from each cell line, and expression of the above-mentioned genes in cell lines with different RS was determined by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: The clonogenic assay showed that human dermal fibroblasts (fibroblast) and HT-29 (colorectal) cells are radioresistant, while human foreskin fibroblasts (fibroblast) and QU-DB (lung) cells are radiosensitive. Analysis of the real-time PCR data, 6 h after irradiation, showed that the increase and decrease of the expression of TRIM29 and TRIM37 genes were directly correlated with the RS of normal and tumor cells. At 24 h postirradiation, a considerable difference was only observed in the expression of the β-catenin gene. Conclusion: This study showed that the TRIM29 and TRIM37 genes are involved in the cell response to radiation and proposed that these genes may be biomarkers for predicting RS in normal and tumoral cell lines.

Cardiac-specific Trim44 knockout in rat attenuates isoproterenol-induced cardiac remodeling via inhibition of AKT/mTOR pathway

When pathological hypertrophy progresses to heart failure (HF), the prognosis is often very poor. Therefore, it is crucial to find new and effective intervention targets. Here, myocardium-specific Trim44 knockout rats were generated using CRISPR-Cas9 technology. Cardiac phenotypic observations revealed that Trim44 knockout affected cardiac morphology at baseline. Rats with Trim44 deficiency exhibited resistance to cardiac pathological changes in response to stimulation via isoproterenol (ISO) treatment, including improvement of cardiac remodeling and dysfunction by morphological and functional observations, reduced myocardial fibrosis and reduced expression of molecular markers of cardiac stress. Furthermore, signal transduction validation associated with growth and hypertrophy development in vivo and in vitro demonstrated that Trim44 deficiency inhibited the activation of signaling pathways involved in myocardial hypertrophy, especially response to pathological stress. In conclusion, the present study indicates that Trim44 knockout attenuates ISO-induced pathological cardiac remodeling through blocking the AKT/mTOR/GSK3β/P70S6K signaling pathway. This is the first study to demonstrate the function and importance of Trim44 in the heart at baseline and under pathological stress. Trim44 could be a novel therapeutic target for prevention of cardiac hypertrophy and HF.

Summary: This is the first study to demonstrate the function of Trim44 in the heart at baseline and under pathological stress. Trim44 could be a novel therapeutic target for prevention of cardiac hypertrophy.

UPS: Opportunities and challenges for gastric cancer treatment

Gastric cancer remains the fourth most frequently diagnosed malignancy and the fifth leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide owning to the lack of efficient drugs and targets for therapy. Accumulating evidence indicates that UPS, which consists of E1, E2, and E3 enzymes and proteasome, plays an important role in the GC tumorigenesis. The imbalance of UPS impairs the protein homeostasis network during development of GC. Therefore, modulating these enzymes and proteasome may be a promising strategy for GC target therapy. Besides, PROTAC, a strategy using UPS to degrade the target protein, is an emerging tool for drug development. Thus far, more and more PROTAC drugs enter clinical trials for cancer therapy. Here, we will analyze the abnormal expression enzymes in UPS and summarize the E3 enzymes which can be developed in PROTAC so that it can contribute to the development of UPS modulator and PROTAC technology for GC therapy.

Tripartite motif protein 6 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression via multiple pathways

Background/aim

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) ranks among the most prevalent malignancies worldwide and the third leading cause of cancer-related death. The TRIM (tripartite motif-containing) protein family members had been reported to be involved in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. Here we aimed to explore the expression profile of TRIM6 in HCC and investigate its clinical significance as well as underlying mechanisms.

Materials and methods

We retrospectively enrolled 138 HCC patients that underwent surgical resection in our hospital and tested protein expression level of TRIM6 through immunohistochemical staining. The correlation between TRIM6 and patients' characteristics was assessed by Chi-square test. Log-rank test and Cox hazard regression test were conducted for univariate and multivariate survival analyses, respectively. Two human HCC cell lines, Huh7 and Hep3B, were subjected for knockdown and overexpression assays, followed by phonotype tests including proliferation and invasion. Nude mice were used to generate xenograft model to validate our findings in vivo.

Results

TRIM6 was highly expressed in HCC specimen compared to nontumorous liver tissues. Higher TRIM6 expression was correlated with larger tumor size, later tumor stage, and worse prognosis. According to the cellular experiments, TRIM6-knockdown resulted in decreased expression of cyclin B1, c-Myc, Snail, MMP2, and VEGF-A. Consistently, TRIM6-knockdown led to impaired HCC proliferation, invasion, and angiogenesis. In contrast, TRIM6 overexpression showed opposite effects. Finally, the oncogenic role of TRIM6 in HCC was validated by in vivo mice experiments.

Conclusion

TRIM6 can serve as a novel prognostic factor for HCC, which functions by multiple signaling pathways.

TRIM44 Promotes Endometrial Carcinoma Progression by Activating the FRS2 Signalling Pathway

The Tripartite Motif Containing 44 (TRIM44) is highly expressed in a variety of tumours. However, the TRIM44's role in endometrial carcinoma (EC) progression remains unknown. To investigate the TRIM44's role in the development and metastasis of EC, we detected TRIM44 expression in EC cell lines and surgical specimens from patients with EC using immunohistochemistry, real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting analysis. The biological functions of TRIM44 by loss-of-function analysis in RL95-2 and Ishikawa cells were studied. The effect of TRIM44 on the progression of EC in terms of cell proliferation, apoptosis, and invasion was examined and revealed its underlying mechanism in vitro using EC cell lines and in vivo using mouse xenograft models. The TRIM44's expression was positively correlated with EC progression and poor prognosis. The TRIM44 knockdown reduced the EC cell proliferation and invasion while promoting cell apoptosis. Mechanism experiments showed that the TRIM44 interacts with Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor Substrate 2 (FRS2) and negatively regulates the expression of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4(BMP4), β-catenin, and Transforming Growth Factor Beta Receptor 1(TGF-βR1). Moreover, the effect of TRIM44 overexpression on EC cell proliferation, invasion, and apoptosis is reversed by the FRS2 knockdown. Our study may provide a new perspective on targeting the TRIM44/FRS2 signaling pathway in treating EC, which deserves further investigation.

TRIM family contribute to tumorigenesis, cancer development, and drug resistance

The tripartite-motif (TRIM) family represents one of the largest classes of putative single protein RING-finger E3 ubiquitin ligases. TRIM family is involved in a variety of cellular signaling transductions and biological processes. TRIM family also contributes to cancer initiation, progress, and therapy resistance, exhibiting oncogenic and tumor-suppressive functions in different human cancer types. Moreover, TRIM family members have great potential to serve as biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis. In this review, we focus on the specific mechanisms of the participation of TRIM family members in tumorigenesis, and cancer development including interacting with dysregulated signaling pathways such as JAK/STAT, PI3K/AKT, TGF-β, NF-κB, Wnt/β-catenin, and p53 hub. In addition, many studies have demonstrated that the TRIM family are related to tumor resistance; modulate the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, and guarantee the acquisition of cancer stem cells (CSCs) phenotype. In the end, we havediscussed the potential of TRIM family members for cancer therapeutic targets.

TRIM50 Inhibits Proliferation and Metastasis of Gastric Cancer via Promoting β-Catenin Degradation

Background

Gastric cancer (GC) is a common malignancy with a poor prognosis. Tripartite motif-containing 50 (TRIM50) belongs to the TRIM family and is reported to be related to numerous cancers. This study aimed to investigate the function of TRIM50 in GC.

Methods

Three microarray datasets (GSE13911, GSE79973, and GSE19826) containing GC and adjacent nontumor tissues were used for bioinformatics analysis to screen GC-related genes and assess the associations between GC development and TRIM50 expression. Then, TRIM50 expression in GC cells was detected at mRNA and protein levels. After TRIM50 was knockdown or overexpressed, the effect of TRIM50 on the proliferation and metastasis of GC cells was analyzed using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), flow cytometry, scratch, and Transwell assays. The interaction between TRIM50 and β-catenin was analyzed. The expression of cell cycle-, migration-, invasion-, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway-related proteins was detected by Western blot. Furthermore, we measured the role of TRIM50 overexpression on tumor growth as well as the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway in vivo. In addition, XAV939 (a WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway inhibitor) was used to clarify the mechanism of TRIM50 on GC.

Results

Bioinformatics revealed that TRIM50 expression was decreased in GC samples and associated with GC development. In vitro study revealed that TRIM50 overexpression impeded the GC cell proliferation and metastasis, while TRIM50 knockdown presented the opposite results. In addition, TRIM50 interacted with β-catenin to induce the degradation of β-catenin. In in vivo assay, TRIM50 overexpression inhibited tumor growth and blocked the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. In addition, TRIM50 knockdown-promoted cell proliferation and metastasis in GC cells were inverted by XAV939.

Conclusion

TRIM50 overexpression may inhibit cell proliferation and metastasis in GC via β-catenin degradation, indicating that TRIM50 could be a target for the treatment of GC.

Overexpression of Tetraspanin31 contributes to malignant potential and poor outcomes in gastric cancer

Tetraspanin has important functions in many cancers by aggregating with various proteins that interact with intracellular signaling proteins. The molecular function of Tetraspanin31 (TSPAN31), located in the 12q14 amplified region in various cancers, remains unclear in gastric cancer (GC). We tested whether TSPAN31 acts as a cancer‐promoting gene through its activation or overexpression in GC. We analyzed seven GC cell lines and 189 primary tumors, which were curatively resected in our hospital between 2011 and 2013. Overexpression of the TSPAN31 protein was frequently detected in three GC cell lines (42.9%) and 62 primary GC specimens (32.8%). Overexpression of TSPAN31 was significantly correlated with lymphatic invasion, venous invasion, more advanced pT and pN stages, and a higher recurrence rate. Moreover, TSPAN31 positivity was an independent factor predicting worse patient outcomes (p = 0.0283, hazard ratio 3.97). Ectopic overexpression of TSPAN31 facilitated cell proliferation of GC cells, and knockdown of TSPAN31 inhibited cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition of GC cells through the PI3K‐Akt pathway and increased cell apoptosis in a TP53 mutation‐independent manner. In vivo analysis also revealed knockdown of TSPAN31 suppressed tumor progression. In addition, knockdown of TSPAN31 improved chemosensitivity to cisplatin through the suppression of ABCC2. These findings suggest that TSPAN31 plays a crucial role in tumor‐malignant potential through overexpression, highlighting its utility as a prognostic factor and a potential therapeutic target in GC.

LINC00958/miR-627 signal axis regulates the proliferation, migration, and invasion of thyroid papillary carcinoma cells by TRIM44

Papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) has attracted much attention due to its high morbidity and severe metastasis. Long noncoding RNA ENST00000504230 (LncRNA ENST00000504230, known as LINC00958) was overexpressed in many cancers and associated with cancer development. However, its underlying mechanism in PTC remains unclear. PTC tissues and corresponding adjacent tissues were collected for measuring the expression of LINC00958 and miR-627. MiR-627 and TRIM44 expressions were measured in in vitro cultured PTC cell lines (B-cpap and IHH4 cells) transfected with sh-LINC00958 or miR-627 mimic using RT-qPCR and western blot. Cell proliferation, migration, and invasion were measured by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and Transwell assays, respectively. Dual-luciferase reporter assay was performed to evaluate the target association between miR-627 and TRIM44. LINC00958 was up-regulated in PTC tissues and cells, while the expression of miR-627 was lowly expressed. Knockdown of LINC00958 inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion by elevating miR-627 expression in PTC cells. TRIM44 was confirmed as a target of miR-627. Overexpression of miR-627 in PTC inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion by down-regulating the expression of TRIM44. LINC00958 promoted proliferation, migration, and invasion in PTC by down-regulating miR-627 and activating TRIM44, indicating the potential therapeutic effect of LINC00958 on PTC.

Comprehensive Analysis of the Prognostic Values of the TRIM Family in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Accumulating studies have demonstrated the abnormal expressions and prognostic values of certain members of the tripartite motif (TRIM) family in diverse cancers. However, comprehensive prognostic values of the TRIM family in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are yet to be clearly defined.

Methods

The prognostic values of the TRIM family were evaluated by survival analysis and univariate Cox regression analysis based on gene expression data and clinical data of HCC from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) databases. The expression profiles, protein–protein interaction among the TRIM family, prediction of transcription factors (TFs) or miRNAs, genetic alterations, correlations with the hallmarks of cancer and immune infiltrates, and pathway enrichment analysis were explored by multiple public databases. Further, a TRIM family gene-based signature for predicting overall survival (OS) in HCC was built by using the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression. TCGA–Liver Hepatocellular Carcinoma (LIHC) cohort was used as the training set, and GSE76427 was used for external validation. Time-dependent receiver operating characteristic (ROC) and survival analysis were used to estimate the signature. Finally, a nomogram combining the TRIM family risk score and clinical parameters was established.

Results

High expressions of TRIM family members including TRIM3, TRIM5, MID1, TRIM21, TRIM27, TRIM32, TRIM44, TRIM47, and TRIM72 were significantly associated with HCC patients’ poor OS. A novel TRIM family gene-based signature (including TRIM5, MID1, TRIM21, TRIM32, TRIM44, and TRIM47) was built for OS prediction in HCC. ROC curves suggested the signature’s good performance in OS prediction. HCC patients in the high-risk group had poorer OS than the low-risk patients based on the signature. A nomogram integrating the TRIM family risk score, age, and TNM stage was established. The ROC curves suggested that the signature presented better discrimination than the similar model without the TRIM family risk score.

Conclusion

Our study identified the potential application values of the TRIM family for outcome prediction in HCC.

CircFBXW8 Acts an Oncogenic Role in the Malignant Progression of Non-small Cell Lung Carcinoma by miR-370-3p-Dependent Regulation of TRIM44

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is an aggressive malignant tumor. Growing evidences have revealed that circular RNA (circRNA) is involved in NSCLC progression. This study aims to investigate the role of circular RNA F-box and WD repeat domain containing 8 (circFBXW8) in NSCLC progression and the underlying mechanism. The expression of circFBXW8, microRNA-370-3p (miR-370-3p) and tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) mRNA was detected by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Protein expression was detected by western blot analysis or immunohistochemistry assay. Additionally, cell viability, colony-forming ability, proliferation and apoptosis were investigated by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide, cell colony formation, 5-Ethynyl-29-deoxyuridine and flow cytometry analysis assays, respectively. Cell migratory and invasive abilities were examined by wound-healing and transwell assays. The regulatory relationship between miR-370-3p and circFBXW8 or TRIM44 was identified by dual-luciferase reporter and RNA pull-down assays. Furthermore, xenograft experiment was employed to explain the effect of circFBXW8 silencing on tumor formation. CircFBXW8 and TRIM44 expression were upregulated, while miR-370-3p was downregulated in NSCLC tissues, cells and the exosomes from NSCLC cells compared with respective controls. CircFBXW8 depletion repressed NSCLC cell proliferation, migration and invasion, but promoted cell apoptosis. CircFBXW8 acted as a sponge of miR-370-3p and regulated NSCLC cell malignancy by binding to miR-370-3p. Additionally, miR-370-3p repressed NSCLC cell processes by regulating TRIM44. CircFBXW8 knockdown inhibited tumor formation in vivo. Further, circFBXW8 secretion was mediated by exosomes. CircFBXW8 modulated NSCLC progression by increasing TRIM44 expression through sponging miR-370-3p, which provided a new direction for studying the therapy of NSCLC.

Sesamin exerts anti-tumor activity in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma via inhibition of TRIM44 and NF-κB signaling

Tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) is known to play an oncogenic role in multiple human cancers, including esophageal cancer. Sesamin possesses potent anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties for various cancers. This study is designed to unravel the biological functions of sesamin and TRIM44 in esophageal cancer. TRIM44 expression in esophageal squamous cell cancer (ESCC) cell lines and tissues was determined by RT-qPCR assay and Western blot. The effects of sesamin and TRIM44 on ESCC cell growth in vivo and in vitro were assessed by the mouse model and CCK-8 assay, respectively. We found that TRIM44 was significantly upregulated in ESCC cell lines and tissues when compared to their counterparts. Sesamin treatment or depletion of TRIM44 markedly reduced ESCC cell proliferation. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling pathway may be involved in sesamin-mediated TRIM44 suppression. Finally, we showed that oral administration of sesamin dramatically inhibited tumor growth or ESCC in nude mice. Our results suggest that sesamin exerts anti-tumor activity in ESCC via inhibition of NF-κB signaling pathway, demonstrating its potential for the treatment of esophageal cancer.

TRIM44 mediated p62 deubiquitination enhances DNA damage repair by increasing nuclear FLNA and 53BP1 expression

Cancer cells show increases in protein degradation pathways, including autophagy, during progression to meet the increased protein degradation demand and support cell survival. On the other hand, reduced autophagy activity during aging is associated with a reduced DNA damage response and increased genomic instability. Therefore, it is a puzzling how DNA repair can be increased in cancer cells that are resistant to chemotherapies or during progression when autophagy activity is intact or increased. We discovered that tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) is a pivotal element regulating the DNA damage response in cancer cells with intact autophagy. TRIM44 deubiquitinates p62, an autophagy substrate, which leads to its oligomerization. This prevents p62 localization to the nucleus upon irradiation. Increased cytoplasmic retention of p62 by TRIM44 prevents the degradation of FLNA and 53BP1, which increases DNA damage repair. Together, our data support TRIM44 a potential therapeutic target for therapy-resistant tumor cells with intact autophagy.

Circular RNA circWDR27 Promotes Papillary Thyroid Cancer Progression by Regulating miR-215-5p/TRIM44 Axis

Purpose

This study was to explore the biological roles and underlying mechanism of circRNA WD repeat domain 27 (circWDR27).

Methods

The expression of circWDR27, microRNA-215-5p (miR-215-5p) and tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and colony formation assays were employed to detect cell proliferation. Flow cytometry was used to determine cell apoptosis and cell cycle distribution. Cell migration and invasion abilities were examined by wound healing and transwell assays. The protein levels of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), MMP9 and TRIM44 were analyzed by Western blot assay. The relationship between miR-215-5p and circWDR27 or TRIM44 was predicted by bioinformatics tools and confirmed using dual-luciferase reporter assay. Mouse xenograft model was established to examine the role of circWDR27 in vivo.

Results

CircWDR27 and TRIM44 were highly expressed while miR-215-5p was lowly expressed in PTC tissues and cells. Knockdown of circWDR27 suppressed cell proliferation and metastasis and induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in PTC cells. Moreover, miR-215-5p was a direct target of circWDR27, and its inhibition reversed the suppressive effect of circWDR27 knockdown on PTC cell progression. In addition, miR-215-5p directly targeted TRIM44, and miR-215-5p exerted its anti-cancer role in PTC cells by targeting TRIM44. Furthermore, circWDR27 positively regulated TRIM44 expression by sponging miR-215-5p. Importantly, knockdown of circWDR27 suppressed tumor growth in vivo by upregulating miR-215-5p and downregulating TRIM44.

Conclusion

CircWDR27 accelerates PTC progression via regulating miR-215-5p/TRIM44 axis, providing a potential therapeutic target for PTC.

The translational values of TRIM family in pan-cancers: From functions and mechanisms to clinics

Cancer is the second leading cause of human death across the world. Tripartite motif (TRIM) family, with E3 ubiquitin ligase activities in majority of its members, is reported to be involved in multiple cellular processes and signaling pathways. TRIM proteins have critical effects in the regulation of biological behaviors of cancer cells. Here, we discussed the current understanding of the molecular mechanism of TRIM proteins regulation of cancer cells. We also comprehensively reviewed published studies on TRIM family members as oncogenes or tumor suppressors in the oncogenesis, development, and progression of a variety of types of human cancers. Finally, we highlighted that certain TRIM family members are potential molecular biomarkers for cancer diagnosis and prognosis, and potential therapeutic targets.

TRIM Proteins in Colorectal Cancer: TRIM8 as a Promising Therapeutic Target in Chemo Resistance

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents one of the most widespread forms of cancer in the population and, as all malignant tumors, often develops resistance to chemotherapies with consequent tumor growth and spreading leading to the patient’s premature death. For this reason, a great challenge is to identify new therapeutic targets, able to restore the drugs sensitivity of cancer cells. In this review, we discuss the role of TRIpartite Motifs (TRIM) proteins in cancers and in CRC chemoresistance, focusing on the tumor-suppressor role of TRIM8 protein in the reactivation of the CRC cells sensitivity to drugs currently used in the clinical practice. Since the restoration of TRIM8 protein levels in CRC cells recovers chemotherapy response, it may represent a new promising therapeutic target in the treatment of CRC.

Rotavirus Induces Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition Markers by Transcriptional Suppression of miRNA-29b

Acute gastroenteritis (AGE) is a serious global health problem and has been known to cause millions of infant deaths every year. Rotavirus (RV), a member of the Reoviridae family, still majorly accounts for the AGE in children below 5 years of age in India and worldwide. The involvement of miRNAs in the pathogenesis of RV has been suggested to be of the proviral as well as the anti-viral nature. miRNAs that promote the RV pathogenesis are capable of targeting the cellular components to evade the host anti-viral strategies. On the other hand, miRNAs with anti-rotaviral properties are themselves incapacitated during the progression of the infection. The exploitation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as a pro-rotaviral strategy has already been identified. Thus, miRNAs that proficiently target the intermediates of the EMT pathway may serve as anti-viral counterparts in the RV-host interactions. The role of microRNA-29b (miR-29b) in the majority of human cancers has been well demonstrated, but its significance in viral infections is yet to be elaborated. In this study, we have assessed the role of miR-29b in RV-induced EMT and RV replication. Our study on miR-29b provides evidence for the recruitment of RV non-structural protein NSP1 to control the trans-repression of miR-29b in a p53-dependent manner. The trans-repression of miR-29b modulates the EMT pathway by targeting tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) and cyclin E1 (CCNE1). SLUG and SNAIL transcription repressors (downstream of TRIM44 and CCNE1) regulate the expression of E-cadherin, an important marker of the EMT. Also, it is established that ectopic expression of miR-29b not only constrains the EMT pathway but also restricts RV replication. Therefore, miR-29b repression is a crucial event in the RV pathogenesis. Ectopic expression of miR-29b displays potential anti-viral properties against RV propagation.

Roles of E3 ubiquitin ligases in gastric cancer carcinogenesis and their effects on cisplatin resistance

Although gastric cancer (GC) is one of the most common cancers with high incidence and mortality rates, its pathogenesis is still not elucidated. GC carcinogenesis is complicated and involved in the activation of oncoproteins and inactivation of tumor suppressors. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) is crucial for protein degradation and regulation of physiological and pathological processes. E3 ubiquitin ligases are pivotal enzymes in UPS, containing various subfamily proteins. Previous studies report that some E3 ligases, including SKP2, CUL1, and MDM2, act as oncoproteins in GC carcinogenesis. On the other hand, FBXW7, FBXL5, FBXO31, RNF43, and RNF180 exert as tumor suppressors in GC carcinogenesis. Moreover, E3 ligases modulate cell growth, cell apoptosis, and cell cycle; thus, it is complicated to confer cisplatin resistance/sensitivity in GC cells. The intrinsic and acquired cisplatin resistance limits its clinical application against GC. In this review, we explore oncogenic and tumor suppressive roles of E3 ligases in GC carcinogenesis and focus on the effects of E3 ligases on cisplatin resistance in GC cells, which will provide novel therapeutic targets for GC therapy, especially for cisplatin-resistant patients.

TRIM37 contributes to malignant outcomes and CDDP resistance in gastric cancer

Background: TRIM37 (Tripartite Motif Containing 37) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase for histone H2A and inhibits transcription in several genes. However, it is not known whether it plays a role in gastric cancer (GC). In this study, we tested whether TRIM37 acts as a cancer-promoting factor by being overexpressed in GC. Methods: We analyzed GC cell lines and 124 primary tumors, which were curatively resected in our hospital between 2001 and 2003. Results: Overexpression of the TRIM37 protein was detected in almost all GC cell lines and GC samples (76 out of 124 cases) and was significantly correlated with lymphatic and venous invasion, advanced T-Stage, N-Stage, histology and high recurrence rate. Patients with TRIM37 overexpressing tumors had a worse survival rate than those with non-expressing tumors (P=0.0057). Moreover, TRIM37 positivity was identified as an independent factor predicting worse outcomes (P=0.018, Hazard ratio 3.41). The apoptotic cell analysis showed that the knockdown of TRIM37 increased apoptosis in comparison with the control. In TRIM37 overexpressing GC cells, knockdown of TRIM37 suppressed the migration and invasion. Conclusions: TRIM37 plays a crucial role in tumor malignant potential through its overexpression and highlight its usefulness as a prognostic factor and potential therapeutic target in GC.

The Novel Target of Colorectal Carcinoma: TRIM44 Regulates Cell Migration and Invasion via Activation of CXCR4/NF-κB Signaling

Tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) has been reported to regulate various biological effects in malignant cancers and matrix Metalloproteinases has been demonstrated to be associated with cancer cell migration and invasion. Nonetheless, the expression and molecular mechanism of TRIM44 in colorectal cancer (CRC) remain rarely known. TRIM44 was overexpressed or knocked down in CRC cells. Subsequently, the effects of TRIM44 on cell migration and invasion as well as underlying molecular mechanisms were detected. Data showed that TRIM44 was highly expressed in CRC cell lines. Downregulation of TRIM44 inhibited the cell viability, migration, and invasion in SW-480 cells. In addition, overexpression of TRIM44 enhanced the expression of NF-κB and CXCR4, and enhanced the binding between NF-κB and CXCR4 promoter region. In summarize, TRIM44 may serve as a potential target for CRC diagnosis and progression.

Expression of tripartite motif-containing 44 and its prognostic and clinicopathological value in human malignancies:a meta-analysis

Background

Previous researches have reported that tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) is related to the prognosis of multiple human tumors. This study was designed to systematically assess the prognostic value of TRIM44 in human malignancies and summarize its possible tumor-related mechanisms.

Methods

The available databases were searched for eligible studies that evaluated the clinicopathological and prognostic roles of TRIM44 in patients with malignancies. The hazard ratios (HR) and odds ratios (OR) were combined to assess the predictive role of TRIM44 using Stata/SE 14.1 software.

Results

A total of 1740 patients from thirteen original studies were finally included in this study. The results of the combined analysis showed that over-expression of TRIM44 protein was significantly correlated with shorter overall survival (OS) (HR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.60–2.35) and worse disease-free survival (DFS) (HR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.24–3.65) in cancer patients. Additionally, the combined ORs indicated that elevated expression level of TRIM44 protein was significantly associated with lymph node metastasis (OR = 2.69, 95% CI: 1.71–4.24), distant metastasis (OR = 10.35, 95% CI: 1.01–106.24), poor tumor differentiation (OR = 1.78, 95% CI: 1.03–3.09), increased depth of tumor invasion (OR = 2.72, 95% CI: 1.73–4.30), advanced clinical stage (OR = 2.75, 95% CI: 2.04–3.71), and recurrence (OR = 2.30, 95% CI: 1.34–3.95). Furthermore, analysis results using Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) showed that the expression level of TRIM44 mRNA was higher in most tumor tissues than in the corresponding normal tissues, and the relationship between TRIM44 mRNA level and prognosis in various malignant tumors also explored in GEPIA and OS analysis webservers.

Conclusions

TRIM44 may serve as a valuable prognostic biomarker and a potential therapeutic target for patients with malignancies.

The Tripartite Nexus: Autophagy, Cancer, and Tripartite Motif-Containing Protein Family Members

Autophagy is a cellular degradative process that has multiple important actions in cancer. Autophagy modulation is under consideration as a promising new approach to cancer therapy. However, complete autophagy dysregulation is likely to have substantial undesirable side effects. Thus, more targeted approaches to autophagy modulation may prove clinically beneficial. One potential avenue to achieving this goal is to focus on the actions of tripartite motif-containing protein family members (TRIMs). TRIMs have key roles in an array of cellular processes, and their dysregulation has been extensively linked to cancer risk and prognosis. As detailed here, emerging data shows that TRIMs can play important yet context-dependent roles in controlling autophagy and in the selective targeting of autophagic substrates. This review covers how the autophagy-related actions of TRIM proteins contribute to cancer and the possibility of targeting TRIM-directed autophagy in cancer therapy.

TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and migration by inhibiting FRK in renal cell carcinoma

TRIM44 has oncogenic roles in various cancers. However, TRIM44 expression and its function in renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are still unknown. Here in this study, we investigated the clinical significance of TRIM44 and its biological function in RCC. TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with clinical M stage, histologic type (clear cell) and presence of lymphatic invasion (P = .047, P = .005, and P = .028, respectively). Moreover, TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with poor prognosis in terms of cancer‐specific survival (P = .019). Gain‐of‐function and loss‐of‐function studies using TRIM44 and siTRIM44 transfection showed that TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and cell migration in two RCC cell lines, Caki1 and 769P. To further investigate the role of TRIM44 in RCC, we performed integrated microarray analysis in Caki1 and 769P cells and explored the data in the Oncomine database. Interestingly, FRK was identified as a promising candidate target gene of TRIM44, which was downregulated in RCC compared with normal renal tissues. We found that cell proliferation was inhibited by TRIM44 knockdown and then recovered by siFRK treatment. Taken together, the present study revealed the association between high expression of TRIM44 and poor prognosis in RCC patients and that TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation by regulating FRK.

miR-192-5p suppresses the progression of lung cancer bone metastasis by targeting TRIM44

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, with 50–70% of patients suffering from bone metastasis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that miRNAs are involved in cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in malignancy, such as lung cancer bone metastasis. In the present study, we demonstrated that reduced miR-192-5p and increased TRIM44 levels were associated with the proliferation, migration and invasion of lung cancer. Furthermore, the potential functions of miR-192-5p were explored in A549 and NCI-H1299 cells. We found that miR-192-5p upregulation suppressed tumour behaviours in lung cancer cells. To further investigate whether miR-192-5p is associated with TRIM44, we used TargetScan software to predict the binding site between miR-192-5p and TRIM44. Luciferase activity assays were performed to verify this prediction. In addition, the significant role of miR-192-5p in negatively regulating TRIM44 expression was manifested by our research group. our results suggest that miR-192-5p inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of lung cancer through TRIM44.

TRIM44 Promotes Colorectal Cancer Proliferation, Migration, and Invasion Through the Akt/mTOR Signaling Pathway

Purpose

The tripartite motif protein 44 (TRIM44) participates in a variety of biological processes of malignant tumors. However, the expression and molecular mechanism of TRIM44 in colorectal cancer (CRC) remain unclear.

Patients and methods

123 CRC tissues were used for immunohistochemical assay and survival analysis. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) technology was used to silence the expression of TRIM44 in CRC cell lines. Then, we explored the effect of TRIM44 on the biological behavior of CRC cells. Finally, we studied the underlying mechanisms by Western blot.

Results

We found that TRIM44 is up-regulated in CRC tissues and cells. TRIM44 is a risk factor for poor prognosis in patients with CRC. In vitro, we effectively silenced the expression of TRIM44 in CRC cell lines. Silencing of TRIM44 inhibits the proliferation, migration and invasion of CRC cells. In terms of mechanistic studies, we found that high TRIM44 expression activates the Akt/mTOR signaling pathway.

Conclusion

Our research showed that TRIM44 may serve as a biomarker for CRC patients.

TRIM13 inhibits cell migration and invasion in clear-cell renal cell carcinoma

TRIM13, a member of the TRIM family, is a RING domain containing E3 ubiquitin ligase which plays critical roles in diverse cellular processes including cell death, cancer and antiviral immunity. However, its expression and molecular mechanism on renal cell carcinoma (RCC) have not been characterized. This study explored the clinical significance and biological function of TRIM13 in human RCC. Western blot analyses and Immunohistochemical were performed in RCC tissues. The clinical relevance of TRIM13 in RCC was evaluated by immunohistochemical staining using tissue microarray. The role of TRIM13 in migration was studied in renal cell carcinoma cell lines of 786-O through knocking down TRIM13 with siRNA and over-expression of TRIM13. The regulation of TRIM13 on migration and invasion were determined by wound-healing and transwell assays. Western blot analyses showed that TRIM13 expression was dramatically decreased in RCC tissues compared with adjacent non-tumorous tissues. Up-regulation of TRIM13 in 786-O cells resulted in decreased NF-kB, MMP-9 and p-AKT levels and the capability for migration and invasion. In contrast, the ectopic expression of TRIM13 decreased the migration and invasion ability of 786-O cells. These findings indicate that TRIM13 decreases RCC metastasis and invasion may serve as a candidate RCC prognostic marker and a potential therapeutic target.

High expression of TRIM36 is associated with radiosensitivity in gastric cancer

Radiotherapy is one of the main adjuvant treatments for gastric cancer (GC) that can effectively reduce local recurrence and improve survival rates. However, radiotherapy may result in cytotoxicity and not benefit all patients. This highlights the requirement for identifying potential radiosensitivity genes in GC. The current study investigated the association between tripartite motif containing 36 (TRIM36) status and the prognosis of patients with GC receiving radiotherapy. A total of 371 patients with GC were selected from The Cancer Genome Atlas and randomly divided into test and the validation groups. The results revealed that TRIM36 expression was not associated with the overall survival (OS) rate. Patients who received radiotherapy with high TRIM36 expression had an improved OS rate compared with patients who did not receive radiotherapy in the test group, as demonstrated by univariate analysis [hazard ratio (HR), 0.062; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.008–0.462; P=0.007] and multivariate analysis (HR, 0.095; 95% CI, 0.012–0.748; P=0.025). In the validation group, patients with high TRIM36 expression had decreased mortality risk when they received radiotherapy compared with patients who did not receive radiotherapy, as determined by univariate analysis (HR, 0.190; 95% CI, 0.067–0.540; P=0.002) and multivariate analysis (HR, 0.075; 95% CI, 0.020–0.276; P<0.001). However, for patients with low expression, no significant difference was identified in the overall survival rates between the radiotherapy and non-radiotherapy groups. Chi-squared analysis revealed that the expression status of TRIM36 was an independent factor and was not associated with clinicopathological factors. The results indicated that patients with high TRIM36 expression receiving radiotherapy exhibited an improved OS rate. TRIM36 may therefore be an important factor affecting the clinical prognosis of patients with GC receiving radiotherapy and may be considered as a potential radiosensitivity gene signature.

Yarrow supercritical extract exerts antitumoral properties by targeting lipid metabolism in pancreatic cancer

Metabolic reprogramming is considered a hallmark of cancer. Currently, the altered lipid metabolism in cancer is a topic of interest due to the prominent role of lipids regulating the progression of various types of tumors. Lipids and lipid-derived molecules have been shown to activate growth regulatory pathways and to promote malignancy in pancreatic cancer. In a previous work, we have described the antitumoral properties of Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium) CO₂ supercritical extract (Yarrow SFE) in pancreatic cancer. Herein, we aim to investigate the underlaying molecular mechanisms by which Yarrow SFE induces cytotoxicity in pancreatic cancer cells. Yarrow SFE downregulates SREBF1 and downstream molecular targets of this transcription factor, such as fatty acid synthase (FASN) and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD). Importantly, we demonstrate the in vivo effect of Yarrow SFE diminishing the tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model of pancreatic cancer. Our data suggest that Yarrow SFE can be proposed as a complementary adjuvant or nutritional supplement in pancreatic cancer therapy.

High TRIM44 expression as a valuable biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis in cervical cancer

Tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44) has been reported to be up-regulated in multiple aggressive malignant tumors. However, its expression status and clinical significance in cervical cancer remain unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical significance of TRIM44 expression and the prognosis in patients with cervical cancer (CC). Fresh frozen tissues from 5 samples of CC and 4 normal cervical tissues were analyzed for TRIM44 expression using RT- PCR and Western blot analysis. 122 paraffin-embedded surgical specimens from patients with CC were collected for an immunohistochemistry. TRIM44 expression was found to be significantly up-regulated in cervical cancer specimens compared with adjacent normal tissues (P<0.001). Statistical analysis showed that TRIM44 expression was significantly correlated with the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, histological grade and lymph node metastasis, but not with age, histological type, and tumor size. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis suggested that high TRIM44 expression was associated with poor prognosis. Patients highly expressing TRIM44 have significantly shorter overall survival (OS) (P=0.006) and disease-free survival (DFS) (P=0.002). Furthermore, multivariate Cox analysis showed TRIM44 was an independent risk factor for poor prognosis. Our study demonstrated that TRIM44 expression contributes to the progression of cervical cancer, and could be used as a marker of clinical diagnosis and prognosis of patients with cervical cancer.

Long Noncoding RNA PRRG4-4 Promotes Viability, Cell Cycle, Migration, and Invasion in Lung Cancer Cells

There is a perception that long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) has relationship with carcinogenesis. Many studies have previously identified and validated that the section of chromosome 11p13 is associated with high incidence of tumor. In this study, we investigated a new lncRNA, named lncPRRG4-4, mapped to 11p13 and suspected that lncPRRG4-4 was a potential lung cancer-related gene. To explore its role in carcinogenesis, we first demonstrated that lncPRRG4-4 was upregulated in lung cancer tissues compared with adjacent nontumor tissues and functioned as an oncogene in lung cancer cells. The lncPRRG4-4 was significantly upregulated in lung cancer tissues compared with adjacent normal counterparts (mean ± standard deviation: 0.12 ± 0.84 vs. 0.05 ± 0.22; p < 0.001). Patients with metastasis exhibited high levels of lncPRRG4-4 expression than those without metastasis in both the southern samples (p = 0.045) and eastern samples (p = 0.030), total samples (p = 0.004). In addition, downregulation of lncPRRG4-4 expression inhibited lung cancer proliferation, viability, migration, and invasion ability, arrested cell cycle, facilitated apoptosis, and vice versa. Taken together, these observations suggested that the lncPRRG4-4 functions as an oncogene in lung cancer cells.

Overexpression of ZRF1 is related to tumor malignant potential and a poor outcome of gastric carcinoma

Zuotin-related factor 1 (ZRF1) is a recently characterized epigenetic factor involved in transcriptional regulation and is highly overexpressed in several malignancies, but it is not known whether it plays a role in gastric cancer (GC). In this study, we investigated whether ZRF1 acts as a cancer-promoting gene through its activation/overexpression in GC. We analyzed five GC cell lines and 133 primary tumors, which had been curatively resected in our hospital between 2001 and 2003. Overexpression of ZRF1 was detected in GC cell lines (four out of five lines, 80.0%) and was detected in primary tumor samples of GC (52 out of 133 cases, 39.1%) and significantly correlated with differentiated histological type, venous invasion, lymphatic invasion, advanced stage and a higher recurrence rate. ZRF1-overexpressing tumors had a worse survival rate than those with non-expressing tumors (P < 0.01, log-rank test). ZRF1 positivity was independently associated with a worse outcome in the multivariate analysis (P < 0.01; hazard ratio 4.92; 95% confidence interval: 1.6-21.1). In ZRF1-overexpressing GC cells, knockdown of ZRF1 using specific siRNAs inhibited the cell proliferation, migration and invasion and induced apoptosis in a p53-dependent manner. These findings suggest that ZRF1 plays a crucial role in tumor malignant potential through its overexpression and highlight its usefulness as a prognostic factor and potential therapeutic target in GC.

Elevated TRIM23 expression predicts poor prognosis in Chinese gastric cancer

The gene TRIM23 (tripartite motif containing 23) is a member of the tripartite motif (TRIM) family whose expression putatively participates in many pathophysiological processes. Nonetheless, the role of TRIM23 in gastric cancer (GC) remains uncertain. Our study evaluated the expression of TRIM23 in GC tissues and cell lines, and investigated an association between TRIM23 and survival. In the present study, our results demonstrated that TRIM23 mRNA and protein were frequently over-expressed in GC cell lines and GC tissues. High level of TRIM23 protein correlated with tumor size, tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage, depth of invasion, lymph node metastasis (LNM), tumor differentiation, and nerve invasion. Compared with the low TRIM23 protein group, the high TRIM23 protein group was significantly associated with worse prognosis of GC patients. Consistently, the KM-plot database suggested that high TRIM23 mRNA expression was also linked to a poor prognosis in GC patients both in positive and negative subgroups of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). But in the HER2 positive subgroup, the advantages of the low TRIM23 expression on overall survival were much more statistically significant. The univariate analysis indicated that TRIM23 expression correlated with overall survival. The multivariate analysis showed that independent factors of prognosis in GC were lymph node metastasis, vascular invasion, and depth of invasion. In summary, TRIM23 may be associated with progression of GC, and may be considered a therapeutic target for GC patients.

TRIM44 promotes human esophageal cancer progression via the AKT/mTOR pathway

Aberrant expression of TRIM‐containing protein 44 (TRIM44) acts as a promoter in multiple cancers. Here, we investigated the biological functions and clinical significance of TRIM44 in human esophageal cancer (HEC). TRIM44 expression was significantly higher in HEC tissues than corresponding normal tissues at both the mRNA (2.42 ± 0.52 vs 0.99 ± 0.25) and protein (1.01 ± 0.27 vs 0.30 ± 0.13) levels. Patients with high TRIM44 expression showed poor differentiation (P = 1.39 × 10⁻⁵), advanced TNM stage (P = 3.87 × 10⁻⁴) and, most importantly, significantly poorer prognosis (P = 2.80 × 10⁻⁵). TRIM44 played a crucial role in epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT). A significant correlation was observed between TRIM44 and Ki67 expression. We demonstrated that TRIM44 markedly enhanced HEC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. Additionally, TRIM44 was involved in the AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and its downstream targets, such as STAT3 phosphorylation. Thus, elevated TRIM44 expression promotes HEC development by EMT via the AKT/mTOR pathway, and TRIM44 may be a novel prognostic indicator for HEC patients after curative resection.

TRIM44 promotes quiescent multiple myeloma cell occupancy and survival in the osteoblastic niche via HIF-1α stabilization

Despite progress in the treatment of MM, including the use of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation, a considerable proportion of patients are refractory to all therapies. This resistance is related to the molecular genetic heterogeneity in MM cells as well as to the contributions from the BM, which is one of the key determinants of treatment outcome. Our previous studies using fluorescent tracers revealed that MM heterogeneity is correlated with the presence of quiescent stem-like cancer cells, which prefer to reside within the osteoblastic niche of the BM. In this report, we identified a novel protein, tripartite motif containing 44 (TRIM44), which is overexpressed in the osteoblastic niche of the BM, enabling MM cells to compete with HSCs for niche support. TRIM44 expression in MM cells promoted cell quiescence but increased bone destruction in xenograft mice, similar to what is observed in MM patients. TRIM44 functions as a deubiquitinase for hypoxia inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), which stabilizes HIF-1α expression during hypoxia and normoxia. Stabilized HIF-1α stimulates MM cell growth and survival during hypoxia. Our work is the first report to reveal signaling in quiescent MM cells and the functions of TRIM44.

TRIM32 promotes cell proliferation and invasion by activating β-catenin signalling in gastric cancer

The tripartite motif (TRIM) family comprises more than 70 members involved in the regulation of many cellular pathways. TRIM32 acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase and has been reported to participate in many human cancers. Here, we aimed to investigate the role of TRIM32 in gastric cancer (GC) and the clinical implications. High expression of TRIM32 was observed in GC tissues and cell lines, and was significantly associated with poor prognosis. Knockdown TRIM32 expression remarkably suppressed the proliferation, migration, and invasion of GC cells in vitro and tumour growth in vivo, whereas overexpression of TRIM32 yielded the opposite results. Western blotting and quantitative reverse‐transcription PCR (qRT‐PCR) analyses revealed that up‐regulation of TRIM32 significantly enhanced expression of β‐catenin protein and of its downstream targets TCF1, cyclin D1, Axin2 and MMP7 mRNAs. Moreover, we found that the mechanism behind the TRIM32‐promoted GC progression was related to the β‐catenin signalling pathway. Collectively, these data suggest that TRIM32 promotes GC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion by activating the β‐catenin signalling pathway.

Overexpression of TRIM44 is an independent marker for predicting poor prognosis in epithelial ovarian cancer

Tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44) has been demonstrated to be important in tumor metastasis and progression. However, the expression pattern and prognostic value of the expression of TRIM44 in epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) remain to be fully elucidated. In the present study, the aim was to investigate the expression and clinical role of TRIM44 in EOC. A total of 109 patients, who underwent primary surgery with the goal of maximal tumor resection followed by standard combination chemotherapy with carboplatin and paclitaxel, were analyzed in the present study. The expression level of TRIM44 was determined by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry in 109 ECO tissues. It was found that the expression of TRIM44 was low in normal tissues and high in EOC tissues. Univariate survival analysis showed that the overexpression of TRIM44 was significantly associated with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage and lymph node metastasis (P<0.05). Kaplan-Meier analysis suggested that there was a significant difference in overall survival and disease-free survival rates between patients with a high expression of TRIM44 and patients with a low expression of TRIM44. Patients with a high expression level of TRIM44 exhibited poorer overall survival and disease-free survival rates, compared with patients expressing a low level of TRIM44 (P<0.001). In addition, the results of the multivariate analysis revealed that the predictive value of the expression of TRIM44 was independent of other clinicopathological factors for predicting prognosis. These findings demonstrated that a high expression of TRIM44 was associated with the progression and prognosis of EOC.

TRIM44, a crucial target of miR-410, functions as a potential oncogene in osteosarcoma

Purpose

Mounting evidence highlights the essential role of TRIM44 in tumor initiation and malignant progression in several cancers; however, the function of TRIM44 in osteosarcoma (OS) remains unknown. In this study, we aim to investigate the role of TRIM44 and reveal its regulation by deregulated miRNAs in OS.

Materials and methods

The expression profiles of TRIM44 were examined by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, and qRT-PCR. The biological functions of TRIM44 were investigated through siRNA-mediated knockdown experiments. The regulation of TRIM44 by miR-410 was confirmed by Western blotting, dual luciferase reporter assays, and rescue experiments.

Results

TRIM44 was upregulated in OS tissues and cell lines, and its overexpression was positively correlated with TNM stage, metastasis, and recurrence. Knockdown of TRIM44 in OS cells suppressed cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition. In addition, we identified TRIM44 as a novel target gene of miR-410 and miR-410 was remarkably downregulated in OS. Moreover, overexpression of miR-410 suppressed proliferation, migration, invasion, and epithelial–mesenchymal transition of OS cells by directly targeting TRIM44 expression. Furthermore, reintroduction of TRIM44 partially reversed miR-410-induced inhibitory effects on OS cells.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings indicate that the miR-410/TRIM44 link is critical in the control of OS progression.

High TRIM44 expression in endometrial carcinoma is associated with a poorer patient outcome

BACKGROUND

Tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) has been recently identified as a novel oncogene that is overexpressed in several types of human cancers; however, its role in endometrial cancer (EC) remains unknown. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the TRIM44 protein expression and clinicopathological significance of TRIM44 in EC.

METHODS

Paraffin-embedded surgical specimens were collected from 143 patients with EC for the immunohistochemical analysis of TRIM44 expression. Western blotting was performed to evaluate differences in TRIM44 protein expression in EC and normal endometrial tissues.

RESULTS

TRIM44 expression was low in normal tissues and high in EC tissues (P < 0.001). TRIM44 overexpression was significantly associated with the Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) stage, histological grade, depth of myometrial invasion and lymph node metastasis (P < 0.05). Moreover, TRIM44 expression was an independent prognostic factor for both overall survival and disease-free survival in patients with EC (both P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The present study provides evidence that TRIM44 predicts the risk of development and prognosis of EC, highlighting its potential application as a therapeutic target for this malignancy.

Elevated TRIM44 promotes intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma progression by inducing cell EMT via MAPK signaling

Surgical results for intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) remain unsatisfactory due to the high rate of recurrence. Here, we investigated that the expression and roles of tripartite motif‐containing protein 44 (TRIM44) in human ICCs. Firstly, TRIM44 expression was analyzed in several kinds of cancers by referring to public Oncomine database, and the expressions of TRIM44 mRNA and protein were tested in ICC and corresponding paratumorous tissues. Secondly, functions and mechanisms of TRIM44 in ICC cells were further evaluated by TRIM44 interference and cDNA transfection. Finally, the prognostic role of TRIM44 was assessed by Kaplan–Meier and Cox regression. We found that TRIM44 expression was upregulated in ICC tissues compared with corresponding paratumorous tissues, which were consistent with the results from the public cancer database. Knockdown of TRIM44 repressed the invasion and migration of ICC cells, while increased the ICC cell apoptosis. Additionally, high level of TRIM44 was shown to induce ICC cell epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT). Mechanistically, a high level of TRIM44 was found to activate MAPK signaling, and a MEK inhibitor, AZD6244, reversed cell EMT and apoptosis endowed by TRIM44 overexpression. Clinically, TRIM44 expression was positively associated with large tumor size (P = 0.035), lymphatic metastasis (P = 0.008) and poor tumor differentiation (P = 0.036). Importantly, patients in TRIM44^high group had shorter overall survival and higher cumulative rate of recurrence than patients in TRIM44^low group. Our results suggest elevated TRIM44 promotes ICC development by inducing cell EMT and apoptosis resistance, and TRIM44 is a valuable prognostic biomarker and promising therapeutic target of ICC.

Knockdown of TRIM37 suppresses the proliferation, migration and invasion of glioma cells through the inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Tripartite motif 37 (TRIM37), a member of the TRIM protein family, was involved in the tumorigenesis of several types of cancer. However, the expression pattern and role of TRIM37 in glioma remain unclear. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate the role of TRIM37 in glioma, and to determine the molecular mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that TRIM37 was highly expressed in human glioma tissues and cell liens. Additionally, knockdown of TRIM37 dramatically inhibited the proliferation, migration/invasion, and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype in glioma cells. Furthermore, knockdown of TRIM37 significantly reduced the levels of phosphorylated PI3K and Akt in U87MG cells, and an activator of PI3K/Akt signaling (SC79) partly reversed the inhibitory effects of si-TRIM37 on glioma cell proliferation and migration. Taken together, our results demonstrated that TRIM37 functions as an oncogene in the development and progression of glioma. TRIM37 knockdown inhibited the proliferation and invasion of human glioma cells at least in part through the inactivation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

TRIM44 promotes proliferation and metastasis in non‑small cell lung cancer via mTOR signaling pathway

Tripartite motif-containing protein 44 (TRIM44) was recently identified as a potential therapeutic target in several types of malignancy, but its effect on the clinical course of malignancy and its underlying regulatory mechanism remain largely unknown. The present study shows that upregulation of TRIM44 is associated with poor differentiation, advanced pTNM stage, adenocarcinoma subtype, lymph node metastasis and, most importantly, unfavorable survival in patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). TRIM44 knockdown inhibited the invasion and migration of human NSCLC cells, which was concurrent with downregulation of mesenchymal markers and upregulation of epithelial markers. Overexpression of TRIM44 induced the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and increased the metastatic potential of lung cancer cells. Additionally, TRIM44 induced cell proliferation in vitro and tumor growth in vivo by accelerating G1/S transition via upregulation of cyclins and CDKs. TRIM44-induced mTOR signaling, EMT, and cyclin/CDK upregulation were reversed by treatment with a mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor. These results provide a model for the relationship between TRIM44 expression and lung cancer progression, and open up new avenues for the prognosis and therapy of lung cancer.

Overexpression of CTEN relates to tumor malignant potential and poor outcomes of adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction

Background

To detect a novel treatment target for adenocarcinoma of the esophagogastric junction (AEG), we tested whether C-terminal tensin-like (CTEN), a member of the tensin gene family and frequently overexpressed in various cancers, acts as a cancer-promoting gene through overexpression in AEG.

Materials and Methods

We analyzed 5 gastric adenocarcinoma (GC) cell lines and 104 primary AEG tumors curatively resected in our hospital between 2000 and 2010.

Results

CTEN overexpression was detected in GC cell lines (2/5 cell lines; 40%) and primary AEG tumor samples (35/104 cases; 34%). CTEN knockdown using several specific siRNAs inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of CTEN-overexpressing cells. CTEN overexpression was significantly correlated with more aggressive venous and lymphatic invasion, deeper tumor depth, and higher rates of lymph node metastasis and recurrence. Patients with CTEN-overexpressing tumors had a worse overall rate of survival than those with non-expressing tumors (P < 0.0001, log-rank test) in an expression-dependent manner. CTEN positivity was independently associated with a worse outcome in the multivariate analysis (P = 0.0423, hazard ratio 3.54 [1.04-16.4]).

Conclusions

CTEN plays a crucial role in tumor cell proliferation, migration, and invasion through its overexpression, which highlights its usefulness as a prognosticator and potential therapeutic target in AEG.

TRIM44 Is a Poor Prognostic Factor for Breast Cancer Patients as a Modulator of NF-κB Signaling

Many of the tripartite motif (TRIM) proteins function as E3 ubiquitin ligases and are assumed to be involved in various events, including oncogenesis. In regard to tripartite motif-containing 44 (TRIM44), which is an atypical TRIM family protein lacking the RING finger domain, its pathophysiological significance in breast cancer remains unknown. We performed an immunohistochemical study of TRIM44 protein in clinical breast cancer tissues from 129 patients. The pathophysiological role of TRIM44 in breast cancer was assessed by modulating TRIM44 expression in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. TRIM44 strong immunoreactivity was significantly associated with nuclear grade (p = 0.033), distant disease-free survival (p = 0.031) and overall survival (p = 0.027). Multivariate analysis revealed that the TRIM44 status was an independent prognostic factor for distant disease-free survival (p = 0.005) and overall survival (p = 0.002) of patients. siRNA-mediated TRIM44 knockdown significantly decreased the proliferation of MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells and inhibited the migration of MDA-MB-231 cells. Microarray analysis and qRT-PCR showed that TRIM44 knockdown upregulated CDK19 and downregulated MMP1 in MDA-MB-231 cells. Notably, TRIM44 knockdown impaired nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)-mediated transcriptional activity stimulated by tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). Moreover, TRIM44 knockdown substantially attenuated the TNFα-dependent phosphorylation of the p65 subunit of NF-κB and IκBα in both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells. TRIM44 would play a role in the progression of breast cancer by promoting cell proliferation and migration, as well as by enhancing NF-κB signaling.

Overexpression of TRIM44 is related to invasive potential and malignant outcomes in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

Recent studies have shown that some members of the tripartite motif-containing protein family function as important regulators for carcinogenesis. In this study, we investigated whether tripartite motif-containing protein 44 acts as a cancer-promoting gene through its overexpression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. We analyzed esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell lines to evaluate malignant potential and also analyzed 68 primary tumors to evaluate clinical relevance of tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma patients. Expression of the tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein was detected in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cell lines (8/14 cell lines; 57%) and primary tumor samples of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (39/68 cases; 57%). Knockdown of tripartite motif-containing protein 44 expression in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma cells using several specific small interfering RNAs inhibited cell migration and invasion, but not cell proliferation. Immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that the overexpression of the tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein in the tumor infiltrated region was associated with the status of lymph node metastasis ( p = 0.049), and the overall survival rates were significantly worse among patients with tripartite motif-containing protein 44-overexpressing tumors than those with non-expressing tumors ( p = 0.029). Moreover, multivariate Cox regression model identified that overexpression of the tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein was an independent worse prognostic factor (hazard ratio = 2.815; p = 0.041), as well as lymphatic invasion (hazard ratio = 2.735; p = 0.037). These results suggest that tripartite motif-containing protein 44 protein could play a crucial role in tumor invasion through its overexpression and highlight its usefulness as a predictor and potential therapeutic target in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma.

Overexpression of denticleless E3 ubiquitin protein ligase homolog (DTL) is related to poor outcome in gastric carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Denticleless E3 ubiquitin protein ligase homolog (DTL) has been identified in amplified region (1q32) of several cancers and has an oncogenic function. In this study, we tested whether DTL acts as a cancer-promoting gene through its activation/overexpression in gastric cancer (GC).

METHODS

We analyzed 7 GC cell lines and 100 primary tumors that were curatively resected in our hospital between 2001 and 2003.

RESULTS

Overexpression of the DTL protein was detected in GC cell lines (4/7 cell lines; 57%) and primary GC tumor samples (42/100 cases; 42%). Knockdown of DTL using several specific siRNAs inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion in a TP53 mutation-independent manner. Overexpression of the DTL was significantly correlated with lymphatic invasion, deeper tumor depth and higher recurrence rate. Patients with DTL-overexpressing tumors had a worse survival rate than those with non-expressing tumors in overall survival (P = 0.0498, log-rank test) and disease-free survival (P = 0.0324, log-rank test). In a multivariate analysis, DTL positivity was independently associated with a worse overall survival (P = 0.0104, hazard ratio 3.7 [1.36-10.1]) and disease-free survival (P = 0.0070 (hazard ratio, 3.9 (1.45-10.46)) following radical gastrectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that DTL overexpression plays a crucial role in tumor cell proliferation and highlights its usefulness as a prognosticator and potential therapeutic target in gastric cancer.

Knockdown of TRIM44 Inhibits the Proliferation and Invasion in Prostate Cancer Cells

Tripartite motif 44 (TRIM44), a member of the TRIM protein family, has been shown to play a role in tumor development and progression. However, the potential involvement of TRIM44 in prostate cancer has not been fully explored. Therefore, in the present study, we analyzed the expression of TRIM44 in prostate cancer and assessed the role of TRIM44 in the progression of prostate cancer. Our results showed that the expression of TRIM44 was significantly upregulated in human prostate cancer cell lines. In addition, knockdown of TRIM44 significantly inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of prostate cancer cells in vitro, as well as attenuated the tumor growth in vivo. Mechanistic studies showed that knockdown of TRIM44 significantly reduced the levels of phosphorylated PI3K and Akt in PC-3 cells. In conclusion, this study provided evidence that knockdown of TRIM44 inhibited proliferation and invasion in prostate cancer cells, at least in part, through the inactivation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. These results suggest that TRIM44 may be a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of prostate cancer.

A novel prognostic factor TRIM44 promotes cell proliferation and migration, and inhibits apoptosis in testicular germ cell tumor

Tripartite motif 44 (TRIM44) is one of the TRIM family proteins that are involved in ubiquitination and degradation of target proteins by modulating E3 ubiquitin ligases. TRIM44 overexpression has been observed in various cancers. However, its association with testicular germ cell tumor (TGCT) is unknown. We aimed to investigate the clinical significance of TRIM44 and its function in TGCT. High expression of TRIM44 was significantly associated with α feto-protein levels, clinical stage, nonseminomatous germ cell tumor (NSGCT), and cancer-specific survival (P = 0.0009, P = 0.0035, P = 0.0004, and P = 0.0140, respectively). Multivariate analysis showed that positive TRIM44 IR was an independent predictor of cancer-specific mortality (P = 0.046). Gain-of-function study revealed that overexpression of TRIM44 promoted cell proliferation and migration of NTERA2 and NEC8 cells. Knockdown of TRIM44 using siRNA promoted apoptosis and repressed cell proliferation and migration in these cells. Microarray analysis of NTERA2 cells revealed that tumor suppressor genes such as CADM1, CDK19, and PRKACB were upregulated in TRIM44-knockdown cells compared to control cells. In contrast, oncogenic genes including C3AR1, ST3GAL5, and NT5E were downregulated in those cells. These results suggest that high expression of TRIM44 is associated with poor prognosis and that TRIM44 plays significant role in cell proliferation, migration, and anti-apoptosis in TGCT.