Liquid substitution: a versatile procedure for SEM specimen preparation of biological materials without drying or coating

Comparison and development of scanning electron microscope techniques for delicate plant tissues

Cell deformation often occurs during sample preparation and imaging with scanning electron microscope (SEM), especially with delicate samples, which influences the accuracy of the results. Here we investigate the influence of several preparation methods on cell deformation, using water content and tissue hardness as indicators to classify "delicate" samples of plant species. The degree of deformation in samples resulting from five preparation methods was measured at the tissue and single-cell levels, revealing that a cryo- and methanol-fixation produced lower degrees of tissue dimension deformation and better preservation of cell shape for delicate samples, while for harder tissues, other preparation methods for a dehydrated specimen are also suitable. Stability and image quality of delicate samples could be improved with the application of a cryo-protectant combined with a lower cryo-stage temperature, e.g. - 30 °C. We show that the sample stability under the beam was improved by combining larger sample size and cryo-stage application. Furthermore, the influence of adaxial and abaxial tissue surfaces, the accelerating voltage, and sputter coating time on sample stability and image quality was evaluated. Our study is valuable for artifact reduction and easy application of SEM.

Replication of the Surface Wettability of Plant Leaves with Different Surface Morphologies Using Soft Lithography

Naturally occurring surfaces which display interesting surface wetting properties such as superhydrophobicity, superoleophobicity and directional wettability are found in most aquatic plants. These phenomena arise from the micro/nano structures present on these surfaces complimented by their surface chemistry. The replication of such surface structures is highly pursued due to their potential in applications such as self-cleaning (Lotus effect), microfluidic devices and antifouling surfaces. Soft lithography is a technique that has been used to replicate micro/nano structures with varying degrees of success. Nevertheless, in the context of natural surfaces, the technique has been mostly limited to the replication of the lotus leaf structure. Therefore, a systematic investigation could be fruitful since it has the potential to be scaled up to replicate different surface structures as well as large-area patterning. In this study, the feasibility of soft lithography technique on natural leaf surfaces was investigated using five plant species with different surface morphologies. The negatives of these primary molds were replicated using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and the final positive replica was successfully replicated from PDMS while using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as an anti-stick layer. The structures were characterized based on SEM images and contact angle measurements. Additionally, the effect of HPMC was also investigated. The technique can easily be extended to broader applications in other areas that require micro/nanostructured surfaces such as anti-reflection coatings, chemical sensors and anti-microbial surfaces.

In-situ preparation of plant samples in ESEM for energy dispersive x-ray microanalysis and repetitive observation in SEM and ESEM

The Extended Low Temperature Method (ELTM) for the in-situ preparation of plant samples in an environmental scanning electron microscope enables carrying out repetitive topographical and material analysis at a higher resolution in the vacuum conditions of a scanning electron microscope or in the low gas pressure conditions of an environmental scanning electron microscope. The method does not require any chemical intervention and is thus suitable for imaging delicate structures rarely observable with common treatment methods. The method enables both sample stabilization as close to their native state as possible, as well as the transfer of the same sample from a low vacuum to an atmospheric condition for sample storage or later study. It is impossible for wet samples in the environmental scanning electron microscope. Our studies illustrate the high applicability of the ELTM for different types of plant tissue, from imaging of plant waxes at higher resolution, the morphological study of highly susceptible early somatic embryos to the elemental microanalysis of root cells. The method established here provides a very fast, universal and inexpensive solution for plant sample treatment usable in a commercial environmental scanning electron microscope equipped with a cooling Peltier stage.

A study on the wetting properties of broccoli leaf surfaces and their time dependent self-healing after mechanical damage

Plants are protected from the elements by a complex hierarchical epicuticular wax layer which has inspired the creation of super-hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces. Although many studies have been conducted on different plant wax systems to determine the mechanisms of water repulsion hardly any have studied the recovery of the epicuticular wax layer. In the current study the wetting properties and crystallographic nature of the wax surface of Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli) has been studied, as well as the time-dependent recovery of the surface after mechanical damage. It was found that the surface of the broccoli leaves is not only super-repulsive and self-cleaning in regards to water but also in regards to glycerol and formamide, both of which have considerably lower surface tension values. Furthermore, it was shown that the surface properties do indeed recover after damage and that this recovery is multi-stepped and strongly dependent on the recovery of the roughness of the surface.

Fog-Harvesting Properties of Dryopteris marginata: Role of Interscalar Microchannels in Water-Channeling

Several flora and fauna species found in arid areas have adapted themselves to collect water by developing unique structures and to intake the collected moisture. Apart from the capture of the moisture and fog on the surface, water transport and collection both play an important part in fog-harvesting systems as it prevents the loss of captured water through evaporation and makes the surface available for the capture of water again. Here, we report the remarkable fog collection and water-channeling properties of Dryopteris marginata. The surface of D. marginata has developed an integrated system of multiscale channels so that the water spreads quickly and is transported via these channels very efficiently. These integrated multiscale channels have also been replicated using a facile soft lithography technique to prepare biomimetic surfaces and it has been proved that it is the surface architecture that plays a role in the water transport rather than the material’s properties (waxes present on the surface of the leaves). Based on our studies, we infer that the microlevel hierarchy of the structures make the surface hydrophilic and the multiscale channels allow the efficient passage and transport of water. The understanding of the efficient and well-directed water transport and collection in D. marginata is expected to provide valuable insights to design efficient surfaces for fog-harvesting applications.

Visualisation of Native Surfaces by Two-Step Molding

One of the most important tasks of microscopy is to provide information about structures in their natural state. Since most life science microscopy procedures require fixation, dehydration, drying, and sectioning, diverse artefacts are unavoidable. It is also possible to dehydrate the water content of a specimen by freeze-drying. However, even relatively stable surface structures are changed during such treatments. Methods of liquid substitution and freezing-substitution show good results for biological specimens with a waxy solid coverage (Ensikat and Barthlott, 1993) and soft specimens in a mechanically deformed state (Gorb et al., 2000).

However, all these methods have certain restrictions for some types of specimens. For example, there are numerous biological surfaces covered with secretory fluids. Some specimens bear solid waxy coverings, which can be partly dissolved and washed out in organic solvents, such as ethanol, acetone, or propylenoxide. Often one would like to visualise dynamic processes (growth, deformation, or crystallisation) under environmental conditions, but at the high resolution in the SEM.

Surfactant-induced enhancement of droplet adhesion in superhydrophobic soybean (Glycine max L.) leaves

This study performed with soybean (Glycine max L.), one of the most important crops for human and animal nutrition, demonstrates that changes in the leaf surface structure can increase the adhesion of applied droplets, even on superhydrophobic leaves, to reduce undesirable soil contamination by roll-off of agrochemical formulations from the plant surfaces. The wettability and morphology of soybean (Glycine max L.) leaf surfaces before and after treatment with six different surfactants (Agnique^® SBO10 and five variations of nonionic surfactants) have been investigated. The leaf surface structures show a hierarchical organization, built up by convex epidermal cells (microstructure) and superimposed epicuticular platelet-shaped wax crystals (micro- to nanostructure). Chemical analysis of the epicuticular wax showed that 1-triacontanol (C₃₀H₆₁OH) is the main wax component of the soybean leaf surfaces. A water contact angle (CA) of 162.4° (σ = 3.6°) and tilting angle (TA) of 20.9° (σ = 10.0°) were found. Adherence of pure water droplets on the superhydrophobic leaves is supported by the hydrophilic hairs on the leaves. Agnique^® SBO10 and the nonionic surfactant XP ED 75 increased the droplet adhesion and caused an increase of the TA from 20.9° to 85° and 90°, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy showed that surfactants with a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance value below 10 caused a size reduction of the epicuticular wax structures and a change from Cassie-Baxter wetting to an intermediate wetting regime with an increase of droplet adhesion.

Plant leaves as natural green scaffolds for palladium catalyzed Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions

This work presents a novel approach of using natural plant leaf surfaces having intricate hierarchical structures as scaffolds for Pd nanoparticles and demonstrated it as a Green dip catalyst for Suzuki-Miyaura coupling reactions in water. The influence of the topographical texture of the plant leaves on the deposition and catalytic properties of Pd nanoparticles are presented and discussed. The catalytic activity can be correlated to the surface texture of the leaves, wherein it has been found that the micro/nanostructures present on the surface strongly influence the assembly and entrapment of the nanoparticles, and thereby control aggregation and leaching of the catalysts. This approach can provide insights for the future design and fabrication of bioinspired supports for catalysis, based on replication of leaf surfaces.

Bioinspired Breathable Architecture for Water Harvesting

Thuja plicata is a coniferous tree which displays remarkable water channelling properties. In this article, an easily fabricated mesh inspired by the hierarchical macro surface structure of Thuja plicata branchlets is described which emulates this efficient water collection behaviour. The key parameters are shown to be the pore size, pore angle, mesh rotation, tilt angle (branch droop) and layering (branch overlap). Envisaged societal applications include water harvesting and low cost breathable architecture for developing countries.

Sample preparation to observe the straight and flat posture of silkworm embryo under scanning electron microscopy via glycerol substitution method

In the preparation process for scanning electron microscopy (SEM), flexed silkworm embryos typically assume several curled shapes with irregular postures that obscure morphological details during SEM observation. We describe a preparation technique based on glycerol substitution for better SEM visualization of straight and flat silkworm embryos. Glycerol has high viscosity, low vapor pressure, and sufficient electrical conductivity. Silkworm embryos were infiltrated with glycerol and arranged in a straight posture or flattened using a cover slip. Samples were directly observed by SEM without additional dehydration, drying, or coating procedures. The complete ventral side could be easily viewed in one image. Recoating alleviated the charging phenomenon. This represents a simple method for preparation of straight and flat samples from curled biological specimens for SEM observation.

An ethanol-based fixation method for anatomical and micro-morphological characterization of leaves of various tree species

The use of formalin constitutes serious health hazards for laboratory workers. We investigated the suitability and performance of the ethanol-based fixative, FineFIX, as a substitute for formalin for anatomical and cellular structure investigations of leaves by light microscopy and for leaf surface and ultrastructural analysis by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). We compared the anatomical features of leaf materials prepared using conventional formalin fixation with the FineFIX. Leaves were collected from ornamental tree species commonly used in urban areas. FineFIX was also compared with glutaraldehyde fixation and air drying normally used for scanning electron microscopy to develop a new method for evaluating leaf morphology and microstructure in three ornamental tree species. The cytological features of the samples processed for histological analysis were well preserved by both fixatives as demonstrated by the absence of nuclear swelling or shrinkage, cell wall detachment or tissue flaking, and good presentation of cytoplasmic vacuolization. In addition, good preservation of surface details and the absence of shrinkage artefacts confirmed the efficacy of FineFIX fixation for SEM analysis. Cuticular wax was preserved only in air dried samples. Samples treated with chemical substances during the fixation and dehydration phases showed various alterations of the wax structures. In some air dried samples a loss of turgidity of the cells was observed that caused general wrinkling of the epidermal surfaces. Commercial FineFIX is an adequate substitute for formalin in histology and it can be applied successfully also for SEM investigation, while reducing the health risks of glutaraldehyde or other toxic fixatives. To investigate the potential for plants to absorb and capture particulates in air, which requires preservation of the natural morphology of trichomes and epicuticular waxes, a combination of FineFIX fixation and air drying is recommended.

Nanostructure on taro leaves resists fouling by colloids and bacteria under submerged conditions

The antifouling and self-cleaning properties of plants such as Nelumbo nucifera (lotus) and Colocasia esculenta (taro) have been attributed to the superhydrophobicity resulting from the hierarchical surface structure of the leaf and the air trapped between the nanosized epicuticular wax crystals. The reported study showed that the nanostructures on the taro leaf surfaces were also highly resistant to particle and bacterial adhesion under completely wetted conditions. Adhesion force measurements using atomic force microscopy revealed that the adhesion force on top of the papilla as well as the area around it was markedly lower than that on the edge of an epidermal cell. The decreased adhesion force and the resistance to particle and bacterial adhesion were attributed to the dense nanostructures found on the epidermal papilla and the area surrounding it. These results suggest that engineered surfaces with properly designed nanoscale topographic structures could potentially reduce or prevent particle/bacterial fouling under submerged conditions.

Extracellular matrix of plant callus tissue visualized by ESEM and SEM

Actinidia deliciosa endosperm-derived callus culture is stable over a long period of culture. This system was used to investigate the ultrastructure of extracellular matrix occurring in morphogenic tissue. Specimens were prepared by different biological techniques (chemical fixation, liquid nitrogen fixation, glycerol substitution, critical-point drying, lyophilization) and observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Fresh and wet samples were analyzed with the use of environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM). Extracellular matrix was observed on the surface of cell clusters as a membranous layer or reticulated network, shrunken or wrinkled, depending on the procedure. Generally, shrunken membranous layers with a globular appearance and fibrils were noted after critical-point drying and liquid nitrogen fixation. Smoother surface layers without visible fibrils and showing porosity were typically seen by environmental scanning electron microscopy. Preservation with glycerol substitution caused wrinkled appearance of examined layer. Analysis of fresh samples yielded images closer to their natural state than did critical-point drying or fixation in liquid nitrogen, but it seems best to compare the results of different visualization methods. This is the first report of ESEM observations of plant extracellular matrix and comparison with SEM images from fixed material.

Droplets on superhydrophobic surfaces: visualization of the contact area by cryo-scanning electron microscopy

The contact area between liquids and solid surfaces plays the crucial role in the wetting and self-cleaning properties of surfaces. In this study, we have developed a cryo-preparation method to visualize the contact area between liquids and superhydrophobic biological surfaces by scanning electron microscopy. Aqueous liquids that do not crystallize during freezing, such as glycerol and phosphoric acid, were used. First, the samples in contact with the liquid droplets were cooled with liquid nitrogen. After this, the droplets were separated and the contact areas on the frozen droplets were visualized by scanning electron microscopy. The contact areas of droplets on various biological and artificial surfaces with microstructure, nanostructure, and hierarchical structures are shown in detail. It could be shown that spaces between nanostructures were not penetrated by the droplet, which rested only on top of the structures. Measurements of the contact areas showed the largest reduction in the solid-liquid contact area on hierarchically structured leaf surfaces. On these surfaces, the droplets are in the "Cassie state" at both levels of surface structuring. On plant surfaces, the varying height of the epidermal cells and the surface relief caused considerable variations in the contact between droplet and surface. The examples demonstrate that this new approach provides detailed insights into the wetting behavior of surfaces in the Cassie state with partial contact with the liquid.

Superhydrophobicity of biological and technical surfaces under moisture condensation: stability in relation to surface structure

The stability of superhydrophobic properties of eight plants and four technical surfaces in respect to water condensation has been compared. Contact and sliding angles were measured after application of water drops of ambient temperature (20 degrees C) onto cooled surfaces. Water evaporating from the drops condensed, due to the temperature difference between the drops and the surface, on the cooled samples, forming "satellite droplets" in the vicinity of the drops. Surface cooling to 15, 10, and 5 degrees C showed a gradual decrease of superhydrophobicity. The decrease was dependent on the specific surface architecture of the sample. The least decrease was found on hierarchically structured surfaces with a combination of a coarse microstructure and submicrometer-sized structures, similar to that of the Lotus leaf. Control experiments with glycerol droplets, which show no evaporation, and thus no condensation, were carried out to verify that the effects with water were caused by condensation from the drop (secondary condensation). Furthermore, the superhydrophobic properties after condensation on cooled surfaces from a humid environment for 10 min were examined. After this period, the surfaces were covered with spherical water droplets, but most samples retained their superhydrophobicity. Again, the best stability of the water-repellent properties was found on hierarchically structured surfaces similar to that of the Lotus leaf.

Micromorphology of epicuticular wax structures of the garden strawberry leaves by electron microscopy: syntopism and polymorphism

Ultrastructural aspects of leaf epicuticular wax structures were investigated in the garden strawberry Fragariaxananassa by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Both the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of two cultivars (Maehyang and Red Pearl) were collected and subjected to surface observations and ultrathin sections. The most prominent leaf epicuticular wax structures included membraneous platelets and angular rodlets. Most wax platelets were membraneous, and appeared to protrude from the surface at an acute angle. Angular rodlets were usually bent and had rather distinct facets in the abaxial surface of the two cultivars. Membraneous platelets were predominant on the adaxial surface of Maehyang, whereas the adaxial surface of Red Pearl was characterized by angular rodlets. However, both cultivars possessed angular rodlets on the abaxial surface, simultaneously. The combination of air-drying without vacuum and in-lens imaging of secondary electron signals with a field emission gun could impart the superb resolution at low electron dose with minimal specimen shrinkage. In vertical profiles of the leaf epidermis, epicuticular waxes were observed above the cuticle layer, and measured approximately as 50nm in thickness. The natural epicuticular waxes were seemingly mixtures of electron-dense microfibrils, and heterogeneous in shape on ultrathin sections. Distinct crystal-like strata could be hardly discernable in the wax structures. These results suggest that the garden strawberry has the nature of syntopism within one plant and polymorphism within the same species in the formation and occurrence of leaf epicuticular waxes.

Structural analysis of wheat wax (Triticum aestivum, c.v. 'Naturastar' L.): from the molecular level to three dimensional crystals

In order to elucidate the self assembly process of plant epicuticular waxes, and the molecular arrangement within the crystals, re-crystallisation of wax platelets was studied on biological and non-biological surfaces. Wax platelets were extracted from the leaf blades of wheat (Triticum aestivum L., c.v. 'Naturastar', Poaceae). Waxes were analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and mass spectrometry (MS). Octacosan-1-ol was found to be the most abundant chemical component of the wax mixture (66 m%) and also the determining compound for the shape of the wax platelets. The electron diffraction pattern showed that both the wax mixture and pure octacosan-1-ol are crystalline. The re-crystallisation of the natural wax mixture and the pure octacosan-1-ol were studied by scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Crystallisation of wheat waxes and pure octacosano-1-ol on the non polar highly ordered pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) led to the formation of platelet structures similar to those found on the plant surface. In contrast, irregular wax morphologies and flat lying plates were formed on glass, silicon, salt crystals (NaCl) and mica surfaces. Movement of wheat wax through isolated Convallaria majalis cuticles led to typical wax platelets of wheat, arranged in the complex patterns typical for C. majalis. STM of pure octacosan-1-ol monolayers on HOPG showed that the arrangement of the molecules strictly followed the hexagonal structure of the substrate crystal. Re-crystallisation of wheat waxes on non-polar crystalline HOPG substrate showed that technical surfaces could be used to generate microstructured, biomimetic surfaces. AFM and SEM studies proved that a template effect of the substrate determined the orientation of the re-grown crystals. These effects of the structure and polarity of the substrate on the morphology of the epicuticular waxes are relevant for understanding interactions between biological as well as technical surfaces and waxes.

Quantitative study ofXanthosoma violaceum leaf surfaces using RIMAPS and variogram techniques

Two new imaging techniques (rotated image with maximum averaged power spectrum (RIMAPS) and variogram) are presented for the study and description of leaf surfaces. Xanthosoma violaceum was analyzed to illustrate the characteristics of both techniques. Both techniques produce a quantitative description of leaf surface topography. RIMAPS combines digitized images rotation with Fourier transform, and it is used to detect patterns orientation and characteristics of surface topography. Variogram relates the mathematical variance of a surface with the area of the sample window observed. It gives the typical scale lengths of the surface patterns. RIMAPS detects the morphological variations of the surface topography pattern between fresh and dried (herbarium) samples of the leaf. The variogram method finds the characteristic dimensions of the leaf microstructure, i.e., cell length, papillae diameter, etc., showing that there are not significant differences between dry and fresh samples. The results obtained show the robustness of RIMAPS and variogram analyses to detect, distinguish, and characterize leaf surfaces, as well as give scale lengths. Both techniques are tools for the biologist to study variations of the leaf surface when different patterns are present. The use of RIMAPS and variogram opens a wide spectrum of possibilities by providing a systematic, quantitative description of the leaf surface topography.

Quantitative assessment to the structural basis of water repellency in natural and technical surfaces

Many plant surfaces are water-repellent because of a complex 3-dimensional microstructure of the epidermal cells (papillae) and a superimposed layer of hydrophobic wax crystals. Due to its surface tension, water does not spread on such surfaces but forms spherical droplets that lie only on the tips of the microstructures. Studying six species with heavily microstructured surfaces by a new type of confocal light microscopy, the number, height, and average distance of papillae per unit area were measured. These measurements were combined with those of an atomic force microscope which was used to measure the exposed area of the fine-structure on individual papillae. According to calculations based upon these measurements, roughening results in a reduction of the contact area of more than 95% compared with the projected area of a water droplet. By applying water/methanol solutions of decreasing surface tension to a selection of 33 water-repellent species showing different types of surface structures, the critical value at which wetting occurs was determined. The results impressively demonstrated the importance of roughening on different length scales for water-repellency, since extremely papillose surfaces, having an additional wax layer, are able to resist up to 70% methanol. Surfaces that lack papillae or similar structures on the same length scale are much more easily wetted.

Immunogold localization of plant surface arabinogalactan-proteins using glycerol liquid substitution and scanning electron microscopy

We have studied the spatial distributions of arabinogalactan-protein (AGP) epitopes on the surface of maize embryogenic calli and roots using monoclonal antibodies JIM4 and MAC207. For this purpose, a new immunogold-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) method was employed which is based on liquid substitution of samples with glycerol. Using this method, we were able to show that the AGP epitopes are distributed along callus and root surfaces and they decorate filamentous structures. In callus cells, the JIM4 epitope was specifically enriched in the outer extracellular layers covering compact clusters of embryogenic meristematic callus cells. In roots, the MAC207 epitope was abundant on the root epidermal surface corresponding to the outer root pellicle, but was only occasionally found on the mucilage layer covering the root cap cells. Silver-enhanced gold particles, indicating AGP epitopes, were often linearly arranged suggesting that AGPs associate with filamentous structures both on the surface of embryogenic calli and root epidermal cells. These results indicate that AGPs are components of the outer extracellular layers and networks that cover the surface of roots and cells undergoing somatic embryogenesis.