Recognition and signal transduction mechanism of Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin and its receptor, guanylate cyclase C

Decoding signaling mechanisms: unraveling the targets of guanylate cyclase agonists in cardiovascular and digestive diseases

Soluble guanylate cyclase agonists and guanylate cyclase C agonists are two popular drugs for diseases of the cardiovascular system and digestive systems. The common denominator in these conditions is the potential therapeutic target of guanylate cyclase. Thanks to in-depth explorations of their underlying signaling mechanisms, the targets of these drugs are becoming clearer. This review explains the recent research progress regarding potential drugs in this class by introducing representative drugs and current findings on them.

Impaired intestinal stem cell activity in ETEC infection: enterotoxins, cyclic nucleotides, and Wnt signaling

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) in humans and animals colonizes the intestine and thereafter secrets heat-stable enterotoxin (ST) with or without heat-labile enterotoxin (LT), which triggers massive fluid and electrolyte secretion into the gut lumen. The crosstalk between the cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinase/cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (cAMP or cGMP/CFTR) pathway involved in ETEC-induced diarrhea channels, and the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway leads to changes in intestinal stem cell (ISC) fates, which are strongly associated with developmental disorders caused by diarrhea. We review how alterations in enterotoxin-activated ion channel pathways and the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway can explain inhibited intestinal epithelial activity, characterize alterations in the crosstalk of cyclic nucleotides, and predict harmful effects on ISCs in targeted therapy. Besides, we discuss current deficits in the understanding of enterotoxin-intestinal epithelial cell activity relationships that should be considered when interpreting sequelae of diarrhea.

Animal Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is the most common cause of E. coli diarrhea in farm animals. ETEC are characterized by the ability to produce two types of virulence factors: adhesins that promote binding to specific enterocyte receptors for intestinal colonization and enterotoxins responsible for fluid secretion. The best-characterized adhesins are expressed in the context of fimbriae, such as the F4 (also designated K88), F5 (K99), F6 (987P), F17, and F18 fimbriae. Once established in the animal small intestine, ETEC produce enterotoxin(s) that lead to diarrhea. The enterotoxins belong to two major classes: heat-labile toxins that consist of one active and five binding subunits (LT), and heat-stable toxins that are small polypeptides (STa, STb, and EAST1). This review describes the disease and pathogenesis of animal ETEC, the corresponding virulence genes and protein products of these bacteria, their regulation and targets in animal hosts, as well as mechanisms of action. Furthermore, vaccines, inhibitors, probiotics, and the identification of potential new targets by genomics are presented in the context of animal ETEC.

PaPI: pseudo amino acid composition to score human protein-coding variants

Background

High throughput sequencing technologies are able to identify the whole genomic variation of an individual. Gene-targeted and whole-exome experiments are mainly focused on coding sequence variants related to a single or multiple nucleotides. The analysis of the biological significance of this multitude of genomic variant is challenging and computational demanding.

Results

We present PaPI, a new machine-learning approach to classify and score human coding variants by estimating the probability to damage their protein-related function. The novelty of this approach consists in using pseudo amino acid composition through which wild and mutated protein sequences are represented in a discrete model. A machine learning classifier has been trained on a set of known deleterious and benign coding variants with the aim to score unobserved variants by taking into account hidden sequence patterns in human genome potentially leading to diseases. We show how the combination of amphiphilic pseudo amino acid composition, evolutionary conservation and homologous proteins based methods outperforms several prediction algorithms and it is also able to score complex variants such as deletions, insertions and indels.

Conclusions

This paper describes a machine-learning approach to predict the deleteriousness of human coding variants. A freely available web application (http://papi.unipv.it) has been developed with the presented method, able to score up to thousands variants in a single run.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12859-015-0554-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Colonic motility-promoting agents for treatment of chronic constipation

Chronic constipation (CC) is one of the most common functional gastroin testinal disorders. Possible etiologies for CC include alterations in gastrointestinal motility and secretion. Research efforts in CC have led to the identification of multifactorial and often overlapping etiologies including abnormalities in myenteric neurons, alterations in neurotransmitters and their receptors, and incoordination of the muscles of the pelvic floor or anorectum. In this article, we review the safety and efficacy of colonic motility-promoting agents, such as 5-HT modulators, motilin agonists, chloride-channel activators, opioid antagonists, uroguanylin and GC-2C receptor agonists, in the management of CC.

Meconium ileus caused by mutations in GUCY2C, encoding the CFTR-activating guanylate cyclase 2C

Meconium ileus, intestinal obstruction in the newborn, is caused in most cases by CFTR mutations modulated by yet-unidentified modifier genes. We now show that in two unrelated consanguineous Bedouin kindreds, an autosomal-recessive phenotype of meconium ileus that is not associated with cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by different homozygous mutations in GUCY2C, leading to a dramatic reduction or fully abrogating the enzymatic activity of the encoded guanlyl cyclase 2C. GUCY2C is a transmembrane receptor whose extracellular domain is activated by either the endogenous ligands, guanylin and related peptide uroguanylin, or by an external ligand, Escherichia coli (E. coli) heat-stable enterotoxin STa. GUCY2C is expressed in the human intestine, and the encoded protein activates the CFTR protein through local generation of cGMP. Thus, GUCY2C is a likely candidate modifier of the meconium ileus phenotype in CF. Because GUCY2C heterozygous and homozygous mutant mice are resistant to E. coli STa enterotoxin-induced diarrhea, it is plausible that GUCY2C mutations in the desert-dwelling Bedouin kindred are of selective advantage.

Multifaceted interactions of bacterial toxins with the gastrointestinal mucosa

The digestive tract is one of the ecosystems that harbors the largest number and greatest variety of bacteria. Among them, certain bacteria have developed various strategies, including the synthesis of virulence factors such as toxins, to interact with the intestinal mucosa, and are responsible for various pathologies. A large variety of bacterial toxins of different sizes, structures and modes of action are able to interact with the gastrointestinal mucosa. Some toxins, termed enterotoxins, directly stimulate fluid secretion in enterocytes or cause their death, whereas other toxins pass through the intestinal barrier and disseminate by the general circulation to remote organs or tissues, where they are active. After recognition of a membrane receptor on target cells, toxins can act at the cell membrane by transducing a signal across the membrane in a hormone-like manner, by pore formation or by damaging membrane compounds. Other toxins can enter the cells and modify an intracellular target leading to a disregulation of certain physiological processes or disorganization of some structural architectures and cell death. Toxins are fascinating molecules, which mimic or interfere with eukaryotic physiological processes. Thereby, they have permitted the identification and characterization of new natural hormones or regulatory pathways. Besides use as protective antigens in vaccines, toxins offer multiple possibilities in pharmacology, such as immune modulation or specific delivery of a protein of interest into target cells.

Cure and curse: E. coli heat-stable enterotoxin and its receptor guanylyl cyclase C

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) associated diarrhea is responsible for roughly half a million deaths per year, the majority taking place in developing countries. The main agent responsible for these diseases is the bacterial heat-stable enterotoxin STa. STa is secreted by ETEC and after secretion binds to the intestinal receptor guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C), thus triggering a signaling cascade that eventually leads to the release of electrolytes and water in the intestine. Additionally, GC-C is a specific marker for colorectal carcinoma and STa is suggested to have an inhibitory effect on intestinal carcinogenesis. To understand the conformational events involved in ligand binding to GC-C and to devise therapeutic strategies to treat both diarrheal diseases and colorectal cancer, it is paramount to obtain structural information on the receptor ligand system. Here we summarize the currently available structural data and report on physiological consequences of STa binding to GC-C in intestinal epithelia and colorectal carcinoma cells.

Toxin mediated diarrhea in the 21 century: the pathophysiology of intestinal ion transport in the course of ETEC, V. cholerae and rotavirus infection

An estimated 4 billion episodes of diarrhea occur each year. As a result, 2–3 million children and 0.5–1 million adults succumb to the consequences of this major healthcare concern. The majority of these deaths can be attributed to toxin mediated diarrhea by infectious agents, such as E. coli, V. cholerae or Rotavirus. Our understanding of the pathophysiological processes underlying these infectious diseases has notably improved over the last years. This review will focus on the cellular mechanism of action of the most common enterotoxins and the latest specific therapeutic approaches that have been developed to contain their lethal effects.

Heat-stable enterotoxin of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli as a vaccine target

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is responsible for 280 million to 400 million episodes of diarrhea and about 380,000 deaths annually. Epidemiological data suggest that ETEC strains which secrete heat-stable toxin (ST), alone or in combination with heat-labile toxin (LT), induce the most severe disease among children in developing countries. This makes ST an attractive target for inclusion in an ETEC vaccine. ST is released upon colonization of the small intestine and activates the guanylate cyclase C receptor, causing profuse diarrhea. To generate a successful toxoid, ST must be made immunogenic and nontoxic. Due to its small size, ST is nonimmunogenic in its natural form but becomes immunogenic when coupled to an appropriate large-molecular-weight carrier. This has been successfully achieved with several carriers, using either chemical conjugation or recombinant fusion techniques. Coupling of ST to a carrier may reduce toxicity, but further reduction by mutagenesis is desired to obtain a safe vaccine. More than 30 ST mutants with effects on toxicity have been reported. Some of these mutants, however, have lost the ability to elicit neutralizing immune responses to the native toxin. Due to the small size of ST, separating toxicity from antigenicity is a particular challenge that must be met. Another obstacle to vaccine development is possible cross-reactivity between anti-ST antibodies and the endogenous ligands guanylin and uroguanylin, caused by structural similarity to ST. Here we review the molecular and biological properties of ST and discuss strategies for developing an ETEC vaccine that incorporates immunogenic and nontoxic derivatives of the ST toxin.

Toxins from bacteria

Bacterial toxins damage the host at the site of bacterial infection or distant from the site. Bacterial toxins can be single proteins or oligomeric protein complexes that are organized with distinct AB structure-function properties. The A domain encodes a catalytic activity. ADP ribosylation of host proteins is the earliest post-translational modification determined to be performed by bacterial toxins; other modifications include glucosylation and proteolysis. Bacterial toxins also catalyze the non-covalent modification of host protein function or can modify host cell properties through direct protein-protein interactions. The B domain includes two functional domains: a receptor-binding domain, which defines the tropism of a toxin for a cell and a translocation domain that delivers the A domain across a lipid bilayer, either on the plasma membrane or the endosome. Bacterial toxins are often characterized based upon the secretion mechanism that delivers the toxin out of the bacterium, termed types I-VII. This review summarizes the major families of bacterial toxins and also describes the specific structure-function properties of the botulinum neurotoxins.

Ectopic expression of guanylyl cyclase C in gastric cancer as a potential biomarker and therapeutic target

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the expression of guanylyl cyclase C (GCC) in human gastric cancer (GC) tissues and assess the effect of GCC small interfering RNA (siRNA) on the proliferation and apoptosis of SGC-7901.

METHODS

The expression of GCC in 30 specimens and three human GC cell lines (SGC-7901, AGS, NCI-N87) were detected by RT-PCR for messenger RNA (mRNA) by Western blot and immunofluorescence for proteins. Recombinant plasmids containing GCC siRNA and scrambled siRNA were constructed and transfected into SGC-7901 cells, respectively. A cell counting kit-8, flow cytometry (FCM) and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TDT)-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end-labeling were used to evaluate cell viability, cell cycle distribution and apoptosis, followed by wound healing assay and cell adherent assay for cell motility and adherent, respectively.

RESULTS

The expression of GCC was absent in paracancerous tissues, whereas the GCC mRNA and protein expressions were detected in 20/30 and 19/30 of GC specimens, respectively. Moreover, intestinal GC was statistically different from diffuse GC (P < 0.05). The proliferation of SGC-7901 cells was markedly inhibited by GCC siRNA-3 (P < 0.05) and cell morphological changes including volumetric reduction, karyopyknosis and karyorrhexis were observed. FCM showed that the cell count in the sub-G0/G1 peak increased from 5.47% (48 h after transfection) to 5.63% (72 h after transfection). The wound healing assay and cell adherent assay revealed that GCC gene silencing decreased cell motility and adherent.

CONCLUSION

The over-expression of GCC has been detected in intestinal type GC. GCC siRNA can effectively inhibit the proliferation and invasion of SGC-7901 cells and induce cell apoptosis. GCC might be a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for GC.

The membrane proximal extracellular domain of human hGC-B folds independently

Human Guanylyl Cyclase B (hGC-B) is a single-transmembrane receptor protein which upon binding C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP) to its extracellular domain catalyzes the intracellular conversion of GTP to the second messenger cGMP. cGMP in turn affects various physiological processes such as smooth muscle contraction, cell proliferation, phototransduction, and salt as well as fluid homeostasis. The 3-dimensional binding site of the peptide hormone is unknown, and the binding mechanism is not yet understood. Therefore, a model of the C-terminal moiety of the extracellular domain of human GC-B containing the potential binding site was derived from the crystal structure of (GC-A). The selected protein sequence was provided with an N-terminal TEV-cleavage site and fused with a 109 aa thioredoxin-tag and a hexahistidine-tag. The identity of the purified 25 kDa protein was confirmed by protein mass fingerprint and its secondary structure was determined by CD- and NMR-spectroscopy. The protein proved to be properly folded with the observed secondary structure matching the predicted secondary structure and the homologous structure in the extracellular domain of GC-A. Size exclusion chromatography confirmed the monomeric state of P-hGC-B.

Heat-stable enterotoxin of Escherichia coli (STa) can stimulate duodenal HCO3(-) secretion via a novel GC-C- and CFTR-independent pathway

The heat-stable enterotoxin of Escherichia coli (STa) is a potent stimulant of intestinal chloride and bicarbonate secretion. Guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C) has been shown to be the primary receptor involved in mediating this response. However, numerous studies have suggested the existence of an alternative STa-binding receptor. The aims of this study were to determine whether a non-GC-C receptor exists for STa and what is the functional relevance of this for intestinal bicarbonate secretion in mice. (125)I-STa-binding experiments were performed with intestinal mucosae from GC-C knockout (KO) and wild type (WT) mice. Subsequently, the functional relevance of an alternative STa-binding receptor was explored by examining STa-, uroguanylin-, and guanylin-stimulated duodenal bicarbonate secretion (DBS) in GC-C KO mice in vitro and in vivo. Significant (125)I-STa-binding occurred in the proximal small intestines of GC-C KO and WT mice. Analysis of binding coefficients and pH dependence showed that (125)I-STa-binding in GC-C KO mice involved a receptor distinct from that of WT mice. Functionally, STa, uroguanylin, and guanylin all stimulated a significant increase in DBS in GC-C KO mice. Uroguanylin- and guanylin-stimulated DBS were significantly inhibited by glibenclamide, but not by 4,4'-diisothiocyanato-stilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS). However, STa-stimulated DBS was unaffected by glibenclamide but inhibited by DIDS. Taken together, our results suggest that alternative, non-GC-C, receptors likely exist for STa, uroguanylin, and guanylin in the intestines of mice. While uroguanylin- and guanylin-stimulated DBS are cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) dependent, STa-stimulated DBS is CFTR independent. Further understanding of this alternative receptor and its signaling pathway may provide important insights into rectification of intestinal bicarbonate secretion in cystic fibrosis.

The intestinal guanylin system and seawater adaptation in eels

Guanylin and uroguanylin are principal intestinal hormones secreted into the lumen to regulate ion and water absorption via a specific receptor, guanylyl cyclase-C (GC-C). As the intestine is an essential organ for seawater (SW) adaptation in teleost fishes, the intestinal guanylin system may play a critical role in SW adaptation. Molecular biological studies identified multiple guanylins (guanylin, uroguanylin and renoguanylin) and their receptors (GC-C1 and GC-C2) in eels. The relative potency of the three ligands on cGMP production in transiently expressed receptors was uroguanylin > guanylin >or= renoguanylin for CG-C1 and guanylin >or= renoguanylin > uroguanylin for GC-C2. Eel guanylin and GC-C genes are expressed exclusively in the intestine and kidney, and the level of expression is greater in SW eels than in freshwater (FW) eels except for renoguanylin. Physiological studies using Ussing chambers showed that the middle and posterior intestine are major sites of action of guanylins, where they act on the mucosal side to decrease short circuit current (I(sc)) in a dose-dependent manner. The ID(50) of guanylins for transport inhibition was 50-fold greater than that of atrial natriuretic peptide that acts from the serosal side as an endocrine hormone. However, only guanylins reversed I(sc) to levels below zero. Pharmacological analyses using various blockers showed that among transporters and channels localized on the intestinal cells of SW teleost fish, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator Cl(-) channel (CFTR) on the apical membrane is the major target of guanylins. Collectively, guanylins are synthesized locally in the intestine and secreted into the lumen to act on the GC-Cs in the apical membrane of eel intestinal cells. Then, intracellular cGMP production after ligand-receptor interaction activates CFTR and probably induces Cl(-) and/or HCO3- secretion into the lumen as suggested in mammals. The physiological significance of the anion secretion induced by the luminal guanylin/GC-C system on SW adaptation may rival or exceed that of the serosally derived natriuretic peptides in the euryhaline eel.

Identification of two functional guanylin receptors in eel: multiple hormone-receptor system for osmoregulation in fish intestine and kidney

Guanylyl cyclase C (GC-C) is a single transmembrane receptor for a family of intestinal hormones, guanylins. In the eel, we previously identified three guanylins, whose gene expression was enhanced in the intestine after transfer from fresh water to seawater. However, only limited information is available about the structure and function of their receptor(s). In the present study, we cloned full-length cDNAs encoding two isoforms of GC-C, named GC-C1 and GC-C2, from eel intestine. The predicted GC-C proteins consisted of extracellular ligand-binding domain, membrane-spanning domain, kinase-like domain and cyclase catalytic domain, in which GC-C-specific sequences were largely conserved. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the cloned membrane GCs are grouped with the GC-C of other vertebrates but not with GC-A and GC-B. However, eel GC-Cs appear to have undergone unique structural evolution compared with other GC-Cs. The three eel guanylins (guanylin, uroguanylin and renoguanylin), but not eel atrial natriuretic peptide, stimulated cGMP production dose-dependently in COS cells expressing either of the cloned cDNAs, providing functional support for assignment as eel guanylin receptors. The potency order for cGMP production was uroguanylin > guanylin > or = renoguanylin for GC-C1; guanylin > or = renoguanylin > uroguanylin for GC-C2. The distinctive ligand selectivity was consistent with the low homology (53%) of the extracellular domain of the two GC-Cs compared with that observed for other domains (74-90%). Both GC-C genes were expressed in the alimentary tract (esophagus, stomach and intestine) and kidney, and their expression was higher in the intestine of seawater-adapted eels than that of freshwater eels just as observed with the guanylin genes. However, the expression of the receptor genes was unchanged for 24h after transfer of eels from fresh water to seawater or vice versa, showing slower response of the receptors to salinity changes than their ligands. Collectively, the multiple guanylin-GC-C system may be involved as a paracrine factor in seawater adaptation at the intestine and kidney of the eel.