1
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Marshall DJ, Tsikouras B. Compensatory shell thickening in corrosive environments varies between related rocky-shore and estuarine gastropods. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 198:106536. [PMID: 38704934 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2024.106536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Few studies have considered the capabilities of gastropods living in minerally-deficient acidified coastal waters to compensate for outer shell corrosion or compromised growing edge shell production. We compared inner shell thickening between pristine shells (control) and corroded shells (experiment) of two related intertidal neritid gastropod species from reduced salinity and acidified environments. We predicted that the rocky-shore, Nerita chamaeleon, which has greater access to shell building biomineralization substrates, should better control shell thickness than the estuarine, Neripteron violaceum. Accordingly, N. chameleon was found to compensate perfectly for variation in the thickness of the outer calcitic blocky layer (BL). Optimal shell thickness (OST) was maintained by selective reabsorption of the aperture ridge of the distal shell (aragonitic crossed-lamellar layer, CL) and by increased internal deposition of proximal (older) shell (aragonitic protocrossed lamellar, PCL). Despite greater exposure to acidification and hyposalinity, N. violaceum showed no significant compensatory shell thickening. These findings reveal that shell thickening capability may vary greatly among intertidal gastropods and that this may be constrained by environmental biomineralization substrate availability. Such environmentally-related responses carry implications for predicted future reductions in coastal water pH and salinity.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Marshall
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Basilios Tsikouras
- Geosciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong, BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
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2
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Marshall DJ, Tsikouras B. Clay-shielded estuarine gastropods are better protected against environmental acidification than unshielded individuals. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 866:161367. [PMID: 36610628 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The effects of progressive global acidification on the shells of marine organisms is a topic of much current interest. Most studies on molluscan shell resistance to dissolution consider the carbonate mineral component, with less known about the protective role of the outer organic periostracum. Outer-shell resistance would seem especially important to gastropods living in carbonate-undersaturated and calcium-deficient estuarine waters that threaten shell dissolution and constrain CaCO3 production. We tested this prediction using gastropods from an acidified estuarine population (Neripteron violaceum) that form a clay shield outside the periostracum. Specifically, we aimed to show that the carbonate shell component lacks integrity, that the formation of the clay shield is directed by the organism, and that the clay shield functions to protect against shell dissolution. We found no evidence for any specific carbonate dissolution resistance strategy in the thin, predominantly aragonitic shells of these gastropods. Shield formation was directed by an ornamented periostracum which strongly bonded illite elements (e.g., Fe, Al and S), that become available through suspension in the water column. In unshielded individuals, CaCO3 erosion was initiated randomly across the shell (not age-related) and progressed rapidly when the periostracum was breached. A light reflectance technique showed qualitatively that shield consolidation is negatively-related to shell erosion. These findings support a conceptual framework for gastropod outer-shell responses to acidification that considers both environmental and evolutionary constraints on shell construction. We describe a novel strategy for shell protection against dissolution, highlighting the diversity of mechanisms available to gastropods facing extreme coastal acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Marshall
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam.
| | - Basilios Tsikouras
- Geosciences Programme, Faculty of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
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3
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Hu N, Brönmark C, Bourdeau PE, Hollander J. Marine gastropods at higher trophic level show stronger tolerance to ocean acidification. OIKOS 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.08890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nan Hu
- Dept of Biology ‐ Aquatic Ecology, Lund Univ. Lund Sweden
| | | | | | - Johan Hollander
- Dept of Biology ‐ Aquatic Ecology, Lund Univ. Lund Sweden
- Global Ocean Inst., World Maritime Univ. Malmö Sweden
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4
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Roberts EA, Newcomb LA, McCartha MM, Harrington KJ, LaFramboise SA, Carrington E, Sebens KP. Resource allocation to a structural biomaterial: Induced production of byssal threads decreases growth of a marine mussel. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emily A. Roberts
- Department of Biology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
- Friday Harbor Laboratories University of Washington Friday Harbor WA USA
| | - Laura A. Newcomb
- Department of Biology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
- Friday Harbor Laboratories University of Washington Friday Harbor WA USA
| | | | | | - Sam A. LaFramboise
- Friday Harbor Laboratories University of Washington Friday Harbor WA USA
| | - Emily Carrington
- Department of Biology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
- Friday Harbor Laboratories University of Washington Friday Harbor WA USA
| | - Kenneth P. Sebens
- Department of Biology University of Washington Seattle WA USA
- Friday Harbor Laboratories University of Washington Friday Harbor WA USA
- School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences University of Washington Seattle WA USA
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5
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Clark MS, Peck LS, Arivalagan J, Backeljau T, Berland S, Cardoso JCR, Caurcel C, Chapelle G, De Noia M, Dupont S, Gharbi K, Hoffman JI, Last KS, Marie A, Melzner F, Michalek K, Morris J, Power DM, Ramesh K, Sanders T, Sillanpää K, Sleight VA, Stewart-Sinclair PJ, Sundell K, Telesca L, Vendrami DLJ, Ventura A, Wilding TA, Yarra T, Harper EM. Deciphering mollusc shell production: the roles of genetic mechanisms through to ecology, aquaculture and biomimetics. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:1812-1837. [PMID: 32737956 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 07/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Most molluscs possess shells, constructed from a vast array of microstructures and architectures. The fully formed shell is composed of calcite or aragonite. These CaCO3 crystals form complex biocomposites with proteins, which although typically less than 5% of total shell mass, play significant roles in determining shell microstructure. Despite much research effort, large knowledge gaps remain in how molluscs construct and maintain their shells, and how they produce such a great diversity of forms. Here we synthesize results on how shell shape, microstructure, composition and organic content vary among, and within, species in response to numerous biotic and abiotic factors. At the local level, temperature, food supply and predation cues significantly affect shell morphology, whilst salinity has a much stronger influence across latitudes. Moreover, we emphasize how advances in genomic technologies [e.g. restriction site-associated DNA sequencing (RAD-Seq) and epigenetics] allow detailed examinations of whether morphological changes result from phenotypic plasticity or genetic adaptation, or a combination of these. RAD-Seq has already identified single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with temperature and aquaculture practices, whilst epigenetic processes have been shown significantly to modify shell construction to local conditions in, for example, Antarctica and New Zealand. We also synthesize results on the costs of shell construction and explore how these affect energetic trade-offs in animal metabolism. The cellular costs are still debated, with CaCO3 precipitation estimates ranging from 1-2 J/mg to 17-55 J/mg depending on experimental and environmental conditions. However, organic components are more expensive (~29 J/mg) and recent data indicate transmembrane calcium ion transporters can involve considerable costs. This review emphasizes the role that molecular analyses have played in demonstrating multiple evolutionary origins of biomineralization genes. Although these are characterized by lineage-specific proteins and unique combinations of co-opted genes, a small set of protein domains have been identified as a conserved biomineralization tool box. We further highlight the use of sequence data sets in providing candidate genes for in situ localization and protein function studies. The former has elucidated gene expression modularity in mantle tissue, improving understanding of the diversity of shell morphology synthesis. RNA interference (RNAi) and clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats - CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) experiments have provided proof of concept for use in the functional investigation of mollusc gene sequences, showing for example that Pif (aragonite-binding) protein plays a significant role in structured nacre crystal growth and that the Lsdia1 gene sets shell chirality in Lymnaea stagnalis. Much research has focused on the impacts of ocean acidification on molluscs. Initial studies were predominantly pessimistic for future molluscan biodiversity. However, more sophisticated experiments incorporating selective breeding and multiple generations are identifying subtle effects and that variability within mollusc genomes has potential for adaption to future conditions. Furthermore, we highlight recent historical studies based on museum collections that demonstrate a greater resilience of molluscs to climate change compared with experimental data. The future of mollusc research lies not solely with ecological investigations into biodiversity, and this review synthesizes knowledge across disciplines to understand biomineralization. It spans research ranging from evolution and development, through predictions of biodiversity prospects and future-proofing of aquaculture to identifying new biomimetic opportunities and societal benefits from recycling shell products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melody S Clark
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, U.K
| | - Lloyd S Peck
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, U.K
| | - Jaison Arivalagan
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN Molécules de Communications et Adaptations des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France.,Proteomics Center of Excellence, Northwestern University, 710 N Fairbanks Ct, Chicago, IL, U.S.A
| | - Thierry Backeljau
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, Brussels, B-1000, Belgium.,Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Antwerp, B-2610, Belgium
| | - Sophie Berland
- UMR 7208 CNRS/MNHN/UPMC/IRD Biologie des Organismes Aquatiques et Ecosystèmes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Joao C R Cardoso
- Centro de Ciencias do Mar, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, 8005-139, Portugal
| | - Carlos Caurcel
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, U.K
| | - Gauthier Chapelle
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, Brussels, B-1000, Belgium
| | - Michele De Noia
- Department of Animal Behavior, University of Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany.,Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQ, U.K
| | - Sam Dupont
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Göteburg, Box 463, Göteburg, SE405 30, Sweden
| | - Karim Gharbi
- Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, U.K
| | - Joseph I Hoffman
- Department of Animal Behavior, University of Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany
| | - Kim S Last
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - Arul Marie
- UMR 7245 CNRS/MNHN Molécules de Communications et Adaptations des Micro-organismes, Sorbonne Universités, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, France
| | - Frank Melzner
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, 24105, Germany
| | - Kati Michalek
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - James Morris
- Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Rue Vautier 29, Brussels, B-1000, Belgium
| | - Deborah M Power
- Centro de Ciencias do Mar, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, 8005-139, Portugal
| | - Kirti Ramesh
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, 24105, Germany
| | - Trystan Sanders
- GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, Kiel, 24105, Germany
| | - Kirsikka Sillanpää
- Swemarc, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, Gothenburg, SE405 30, Sweden
| | - Victoria A Sleight
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Zoology Building, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen, AB24 2TZ, U.K
| | | | - Kristina Sundell
- Swemarc, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, Gothenburg, SE405 30, Sweden
| | - Luca Telesca
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, U.K
| | - David L J Vendrami
- Department of Animal Behavior, University of Bielefeld, Postfach 100131, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany
| | - Alexander Ventura
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Göteburg, Box 463, Göteburg, SE405 30, Sweden
| | - Thomas A Wilding
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, U.K
| | - Tejaswi Yarra
- British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environment Research Council, High Cross, Madingley Road, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, U.K.,Ashworth Laboratories, Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3FL, U.K
| | - Elizabeth M Harper
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EQ, U.K
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6
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Diamond KM, Lagarde R, Schoenfuss HL, Walker JA, Ponton D, Blob RW. Relationship of escape performance with predator regime and ontogeny in fishes. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Diamond
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - RaphaëL Lagarde
- Hydrô Réunion, Z.I des Sables, Etang Salé, La Réunion, France
- ENTROPIE, IRD-Université de La Réunion-CNRS, Laboratoire d’Excellence CORAIL, c/o Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Heiko L Schoenfuss
- Aquatic Toxicology Laboratory, Saint Cloud State University, Saint Cloud, MN, USA
| | - Jeffrey A Walker
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Southern Maine, Portland, ME, USA
| | - Dominique Ponton
- ENTROPIE, IRD-Université de La Réunion-CNRS, Laboratoire d’Excellence CORAIL, c/o Université de Perpignan Via Domitia, Perpignan, France
| | - Richard W Blob
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
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7
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Coffin MR, Courtenay SC, Knysh KM, Pater CC, van den Heuvel MR. Impacts of hypoxia on estuarine macroinvertebrate assemblages across a regional nutrient gradient. Facets (Ott) 2018. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2017-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we examined the effects of dissolved oxygen, via metrics based on hourly measurements, and other environmental variables on invertebrate assemblages in estuaries spanning a gradient of nutrient loading and geography in the southern Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Upper areas (15–25 practical salinity units (PSU)) of 13 estuaries that were dominated by either seagrass ( Zostera marina Linnaeus, 1753) or macroalgae ( Ulva spp. Linnaeus, 1753) were sampled from June to September 2013. Macroinvertebrate assemblages from Z. marina were found to be distinct from Ulva assemblages for both epifauna and infauna. Small snails dominated each vegetation type, specifically cerithids in Z. marina and hydrobids in Ulva. Although Z. marina had higher species richness, approximately 70% of species were common to both habitats. Faunal communities differed among estuaries with large, within-estuary, temporal variance only observed at Ulva sites impacted by hypoxia and particularly at sites with long water residence time. Indeed, abundances varied by several orders of magnitude in Ulva ranging from zero to thousands of macroinvertebrates. There was a strong negative correlation between hypoxic or anoxic water, 48 h prior to sampling, with relative abundances of amphipods, and a positive correlation with the relative abundances of snails. As one of the first studies to use high-frequency oxygen monitoring, this study revealed probable impacts and the transient nature of hypoxia in eutrophication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R.S. Coffin
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Simon C. Courtenay
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Canadian Water Network, School of Environment, Resources and Sustainability, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kyle M. Knysh
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Christina C. Pater
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
| | - Michael R. van den Heuvel
- Canadian Rivers Institute, Department of Biology, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, PE C1A 4P3, Canada
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8
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Predicting Predator Recognition in a Changing World. Trends Ecol Evol 2018; 33:106-115. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2017.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 10/17/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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9
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Guo J, Martín PR, Zhang C, Zhang JE. Predation risk affects growth and reproduction of an invasive snail and its lethal effect depends on prey size. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0187747. [PMID: 29136660 PMCID: PMC5685626 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0187747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The behavior of invasive species under predation risk has been studied extensively, but their growth and reproductive responses have rarely been investigated. We conducted experiments with juveniles and adults of the invasive freshwater snail Pomacea canaliculata, and we observed changes in growth and reproduction in response to predation risk from a caged predator (Trachemys scripta elegans). P. canaliculata produced eggs earlier in the presence of predators and injured conspecifics compared with the control group (no risk), although the total number of egg masses laid by per female was exceeded by that of the controls after 15 days. Egg hatching success noticeably decreased under predation risk, and the incubation period was significantly prolonged; however, the oviposition height of the snails was not affected. A lethal effect of predation risk was detected in juvenile snails but not in adults. The growth of juvenile P. canaliculata was inhibited under predation risk, probably due to a reduction in food intake. Adult females exhibited a greater reduction in growth under predation risk than males, which likely resulted in part from the high reproductive investment of females in egg laying. These results indicate that P. canaliculata snails under predation risk face a trade-off between predator avoidance and growth and reproduction, where the lethal effect of predation risk is linked to the size of the prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Guo
- Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Pablo R. Martín
- Laboratorio de Ecología, INBIOSUR (UNS/CONICET), Departmento de Biología, Bioquímica y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Chunxia Zhang
- Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jia-en Zhang
- Department of Ecology, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in the Tropics, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Modern Eco-agriculture and Circular Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
- * E-mail:
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10
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Walters BT, Cheng TNN, Doyle J, Guglielmo CG, Clinchy M, Zanette LY. Too important to tamper with: predation risk affects body mass and escape behaviour but not escape ability. Funct Ecol 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin T. Walters
- Department of Biology and Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Tin Nok Natalie Cheng
- Department of Biology and Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Justin Doyle
- Department of Computer Science University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Chistopher G. Guglielmo
- Department of Biology and Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Michael Clinchy
- Department of Biology and Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Liana Y. Zanette
- Department of Biology and Advanced Facility for Avian Research (AFAR) University of Western Ontario 1151 Richmond St. North London ONN6A 5B7 Canada
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11
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Hollander J, Bourdeau PE. Evidence of weaker phenotypic plasticity by prey to novel cues from non-native predators. Ecol Evol 2016; 6:5358-65. [PMID: 27551388 PMCID: PMC4984509 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.2271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
A central question in evolutionary biology is how coevolutionary history between predator and prey influences their interactions. Contemporary global change and range expansion of exotic organisms impose a great challenge for prey species, which are increasingly exposed to invading non‐native predators, with which they share no evolutionary history. Here, we complete a comprehensive survey of empirical studies of coevolved and naive predator−prey interactions to assess whether a shared evolutionary history with predators influences the magnitude of predator‐induced defenses mounted by prey. Using marine bivalves and gastropods as model prey, we found that coevolved prey and predator‐naive prey showed large discrepancies in magnitude of predator‐induced phenotypic plasticity. Although naive prey, predominantly among bivalve species, did exhibit some level of plasticity – prey exposed to native predators showed significantly larger amounts of phenotypic plasticity. We discuss these results and the implications they may have for native communities and ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Hollander
- Department of Biology, Aquatic Ecology Lund University Ecology Building SE-223 62 Lund Sweden
| | - Paul E Bourdeau
- Department of Biological Sciences Humboldt State University 1 Harpst St. Arcata California 95521
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12
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Bourdeau PE, Butlin RK, Brönmark C, Edgell TC, Hoverman JT, Hollander J. What can aquatic gastropods tell us about phenotypic plasticity? A review and meta-analysis. Heredity (Edinb) 2015. [PMID: 26219231 DOI: 10.1038/hdy.2015.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
There have been few attempts to synthesise the growing body of literature on phenotypic plasticity to reveal patterns and generalities about the extent and magnitude of plastic responses. Here, we conduct a review and meta-analysis of published literature on phenotypic plasticity in aquatic (marine and freshwater) gastropods, a common system for studying plasticity. We identified 96 studies, using pre-determined search terms, published between 1985 and November 2013. The literature was dominated by studies of predator-induced shell form, snail growth rates and life history parameters of a few model taxa, accounting for 67% of all studies reviewed. Meta-analyses indicated average plastic responses in shell thickness, shell shape, and growth and fecundity of freshwater species was at least three times larger than in marine species. Within marine gastropods, species with planktonic development had similar average plastic responses to species with benthic development. We discuss these findings in the context of the role of costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity and environmental heterogeneity as important constraints on the evolution of plasticity. We also consider potential publication biases and discuss areas for future research, indicating well-studied areas and important knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- P E Bourdeau
- Department of Biological Sciences, Humboldt State University, Arcata, CA, USA
| | - R K Butlin
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, The University of Sheffield Western Bank, Sheffield, UK.,Lovén Centre for Marine Sciences - Tjärnö, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad, Sweden
| | - C Brönmark
- Department of Biology, Aquatic Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund, Sweden
| | - T C Edgell
- Stantec Consulting, Sidney, British Columbia, Canada
| | - J T Hoverman
- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - J Hollander
- Department of Biology, Aquatic Ecology, Lund University, Ecology Building, Lund, Sweden
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13
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Carthey AJR, Banks PB. Naïveté in novel ecological interactions: lessons from theory and experimental evidence. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2014; 89:932-49. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter B. Banks
- School of Biological Sciences; University of Sydney; Sydney New South Wales 2006 Australia
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14
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Bennett AM, Pereira D, Murray DL. Investment into defensive traits by anuran prey (Lithobates pipiens) is mediated by the starvation-predation risk trade-off. PLoS One 2013; 8:e82344. [PMID: 24349259 PMCID: PMC3857255 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Prey can invest in a variety of defensive traits when balancing risk of predation against that of starvation. What remains unknown is the relative costs of different defensive traits and how prey reconcile investment into these traits when energetically limited. We tested the simple allocation model of prey defense, which predicts an additive effect of increasing predation risk and resource availability, resulting in the full deployment of defensive traits under conditions of high risk and resource saturation. We collected morphometric, developmental, and behavioural data in an experiment using dragonfly larvae (predator) and Northern leopard frog tadpoles (prey) subject to variable levels of food availability and predation risk. Larvae exposed to food restriction showed limited response to predation risk; larvae at food saturation altered behaviour, development, and growth in response to predation risk. Responses to risk varied through time, suggesting ontogeny may affect the deployment of particular defensive traits. The observed negative correlation between body size and activity level for food-restricted prey--and the absence of a similar response among adequately-fed prey--suggests that a trade-off exists between behavioural and growth responses when energy budgets are limited. Our research is the first to demonstrate how investment into these defensive traits is mediated along gradients of both predation risk and resource availability over time. The interactions we demonstrate between resource availability and risk level on deployment of inducible defenses provide evidence that both internal condition and extrinsic risk factors play a critical role in the production of inducible defenses over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda M. Bennett
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Pereira
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Dennis L. Murray
- Environmental and Life Sciences, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Freeman AS, Wright JT, Hewitt CL, Campbell ML, Szeto K. A gastropod’s induced behavioral and morphological responses to invasive Carcinus maenas in Australia indicate a lack of novelty advantage. Biol Invasions 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-013-0409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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16
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Zuykov M, Pelletier E, Kolyuchkina G. SEM observation of structural (non-mineralogical) alteration inside the previously crystallized nacreous layer of Crenomytilus grayanus (Bivalvia: Mytilidae). Micron 2013; 44:479-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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17
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Pascoal S, Carvalho G, Creer S, Mendo S, Hughes R. Plastic and heritable variation in shell thickness of the intertidal gastropod Nucella lapillus associated with risks of crab predation and wave action, and sexual maturation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e52134. [PMID: 23272221 PMCID: PMC3521725 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The intertidal snail Nucella lapillus generally has thicker shells at sites sheltered from wave action, where crabs are abundant and pose a high risk of predation, than at exposed sites where crabs are rare. We studied two populations showing the opposite trend. We reciprocally transplanted snails between field sites and measured shell length, width and lip thickness of those recaptured 12 months later. Snails transplanted to the sheltered site grew larger than sheltered-site residents, which in turn grew larger than transplants to the exposed site. Relative shell-lip thickness was greater in residents at the exposed site than at the sheltered site. Transplants from shelter to exposure developed relatively thicker shells than their controls and relatively thinner shells from exposure to shelter. Progeny of the two populations were reared for 12 months in a common garden experiment presenting effluent from crabs feeding on broken conspecifics as the treatment and fresh sea-water as the control. The crab-effluent treatment decreased foraging activity, concomitantly reducing cumulative somatic growth and reproductive output. Juveniles receiving crab-effluent grew slower in shell length while developing relatively thicker shell lips than controls, the level of response being similar between lineages. F2 progeny of the exposed-site lineage showed similar trends to the F1s; sheltered-site F2s were too few for statistical analysis. At sexual maturity, shell-lip thickness was greater in snails receiving crab-effluent than in controls, indicating plasticity, but was also greater in the exposed-site than in the sheltered-site lineage, indicating heritable variation, probably in degree of sexual thickening of the shell lip. Results corroborate hypotheses that ‘defensive’ shell thickening is a passive consequence of starvation and that heritable and plastic control of defensive shell morphology act synergistically. Shell thickening of juveniles was similar between lineages, contrary to hypotheses predicting differential strengths of plasticity in populations from low- or high-risk habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Pascoal
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Gwynedd, United Kingdom
- CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Gary Carvalho
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Gwynedd, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Creer
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Gwynedd, United Kingdom
| | - Sonia Mendo
- CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies & Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Roger Hughes
- Molecular Ecology and Fisheries Genetics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, Environment Centre Wales, Bangor University, Gwynedd, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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18
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The effect of aquatic plant abundance on shell crushing resistance in a freshwater snail. PLoS One 2012; 7:e44374. [PMID: 22970206 PMCID: PMC3435308 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the shell material in snails is composed of calcium carbonate but the organic shell matrix determines the properties of calcium carbonate crystals. It has been shown that the deposition of calcium carbonate is affected by the ingestion of organic compounds. We hypothesize that organic compounds not synthesized by the snails are important for shell strength and must be obtained from the diet. We tested this idea indirectly by evaluating whether the abundance of the organic matter that snails eat is related to the strength of their shells. We measured shell crushing resistance in the snail Mexipyrgus churinceanus and the abundance of the most common aquatic macrophyte, the water lily Nymphaea ampla, in ten bodies of water in the valley of Cuatro Ciénegas, Mexico. We used stable isotopes to test the assumption that these snails feed on water lily organic matter. We also measured other factors that can affect crushing resistance, such as the density of crushing predators, snail density, water pH, and the concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the water. The isotope analysis suggested that snails assimilate water lily organic matter that is metabolized by sediment bacteria. The variable that best explained the variation in crushing resistance found among sites was the local abundance of water lilies. We propose that the local amount of water lily organic matter provides organic compounds important in shell biomineralization, thus determining crushing resistance. Hence, we propose that a third trophic level could be important in the coevolution of snail defensive traits and predatory structures.
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19
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Bourdeau PE, Johansson F. Predator-induced morphological defences as by-products of prey behaviour: a review and prospectus. OIKOS 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2012.20235.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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20
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Puillandre N, Sysoev AV, Olivera BM, Couloux A, Bouchet P. Loss of planktotrophy and speciation: geographical fragmentation in the deep-water gastropod genusBathytoma(Gastropoda, Conoidea) in the western Pacific. SYST BIODIVERS 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/14772001003748709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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21
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Grasshoppers alter jumping biomechanics to enhance escape performance under chronic risk of spider predation. Funct Ecol 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01767.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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22
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CASTELIN MAGALIE, LAMBOURDIERE JOSIE, BOISSELIER MARIECATHERINE, LOZOUET PIERRE, COULOUX ARNAUD, CRUAUD CORINNE, SAMADI SARAH. Hidden diversity and endemism on seamounts: focus on poorly dispersive neogastropods. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01424.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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23
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Bourdeau PE. An inducible morphological defence is a passive by-product of behaviour in a marine snail. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 277:455-62. [PMID: 19846462 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2009.1295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many organisms have evolved inducible defences in response to spatial and temporal variability in predation risk. These defences are assumed to incur large costs to prey; however, few studies have investigated the mechanisms and costs underlying these adaptive responses. I examined the proximate cause of predator-induced shell thickening in a marine snail (Nucella lamellosa) and tested whether induced thickening leads to an increase in structural strength. Results indicate that although predators (crabs) induce thicker shells, the response is a passive by-product of reduced feeding and somatic growth rather than an active physiological response to predation risk. Physical tests indicate that although the shells of predator-induced snails are significantly stronger, the increase in performance is no different than that of snails with limited access to food. Increased shell strength is attributable to an increase in the energetically inexpensive microstructural layer rather than to material property changes in the shell. This mechanism suggests that predator-induced shell defences may be neither energetically nor developmentally costly. Positive correlations between antipredator behaviour and morphological defences may explain commonly observed associations between growth reduction and defence production in other systems and could have implications for the evolutionary potential of these plastic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul E Bourdeau
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, , 650 Life Sciences Building, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5245, USA.
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24
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Edgell TC, Lynch BR, Trussell GC, Palmer AR. Experimental evidence for the rapid evolution of behavioral canalization in natural populations. Am Nat 2009; 174:434-40. [PMID: 19627238 DOI: 10.1086/603639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Canalization-the evolutionary loss of the capacity of organisms to develop different phenotypes in different environments-is an evolutionary phenomenon suspected to occur widely, although examples in natural populations are elusive. Because behavior is typically a highly flexible component of an individual's phenotype, it provides fertile ground for studying the evolution of canalization. Here we report how snail populations exposed for different lengths of time to a predatory crab introduced from Europe to America exhibit different degrees of canalization of an adaptive antipredator behavior: soft tissue withdrawal, measured as angular retraction depth. Where crab-snail contact is shortest (60 years), snails showed the highest behavioral flexibility. Where crabs invaded 110 years ago, snails showed significantly less behavioral flexibility, and where the interaction is ancient (Europe), snails exhibited highly canalized behavior. Selection therefore appears to have acted rapidly to increase canalization in wild snail populations, leading ultimately to the hard-wired behavior seen in European conspecifics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy C Edgell
- Bamfield Marine Sciences Centre, Bamfield, British Columbia V0R 1B0, Canada.
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25
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Freeman AS, Meszaros J, Byers JE. Poor phenotypic integration of blue mussel inducible defenses in environments with multiple predators. OIKOS 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2008.17176.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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26
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PUILLANDRE NICOLAS, BAYLAC MICHEL, BOISSELIER MARIECATHERINE, CRUAUD CORINNE, SAMADI SARAH. An integrative approach to species delimitation in Benthomangelia (Mollusca: Conoidea). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01143.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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27
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Selden R, Johnson AS, Ellers O. Waterborne cues from crabs induce thicker skeletons, smaller gonads and size-specific changes in growth rate in sea urchins. MARINE BIOLOGY 2009; 156:1057-1071. [PMID: 24489404 PMCID: PMC3906715 DOI: 10.1007/s00227-009-1150-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2008] [Accepted: 01/27/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Indirect predator-induced effects on growth, morphology and reproduction have been extensively studied in marine invertebrates but usually without consideration of size-specific effects and not at all in post-metamorphic echinoids. Urchins are an unusually good system, in which, to study size effects because individuals of various ages within one species span four orders of magnitude in weight while retaining a nearly isometric morphology. We tracked growth of urchins, Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis (0.013-161.385 g), in the presence or absence of waterborne cues from predatory Jonah crabs, Cancer borealis. We ran experiments at ambient temperatures, once for 4 weeks during summer and again, with a second set of urchins, for 22 weeks over winter. We used a scaled, cube-root transformation of weight for measuring size more precisely and for equalizing variance across sizes. Growth rate of the smallest urchins (summer: <17 mm diameter; winter: <7 mm diameter) decreased by 40-42% in response to crab cues. In contrast, growth rate of larger urchins was unaffected in the summer and increased in response to crab scent by 7% in the winter. At the end of the 22-week experiment, additional gonadal and skeletal variables were measured. Cue-exposed urchins developed heavier, thicker skeletons and smaller gonads, but no differences in spine length or jaw size. The differences depended on urchin size, suggesting that there are size-specific shifts in gonadal and somatic investment in urchins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Selden
- Department of Biology, Bowdoin College, 6500 College Station, Brunswick, ME 04011 USA
- Present Address: Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California-Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA
| | - Amy S. Johnson
- Department of Biology, Bowdoin College, 6500 College Station, Brunswick, ME 04011 USA
| | - Olaf Ellers
- Department of Biology, Bowdoin College, 6500 College Station, Brunswick, ME 04011 USA
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28
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Whiteley AR, Gende SM, Gharrett AJ, Tallmon DA. Background matching and color-change plasticity in colonizing freshwater sculpin populations following rapid deglaciation. Evolution 2009; 63:1519-29. [PMID: 19154389 DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00627.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Anthropogenic-induced change is forcing organisms to shift their distributions and colonize novel habitats at an increasing rate, which leads to complex interactions among evolutionary processes. Coastrange sculpin (Cottus aleuticus) have colonized recently deglaciated streams of Glacier Bay in Alaska within the last 220 years. We examined divergence among populations in background matching coloration and tested the hypothesis that observed variation is due to morphological color plasticity. To examine how color-change plasticity has interacted with other evolutionary processes, we also determined the influence of colonization on neutral genetic diversity. We observed clinal variation in substrate-matching fish color along the chronological continuum of streams. Microsatellites provided little evidence of genetic subdivision among sculpin populations. Fish color was significantly correlated to substrate color, but was not correlated to neutral population genetic structure. Furthermore, a laboratory experiment revealed that morphological color plasticity could explain much, but not all, of the observed fish color divergence. Our study demonstrates that sculpin in Glacier Bay have colonized and adapted to recently deglaciated habitat and suggests that color change plasticity has aided in this process. This research, therefore, highlights the important role phenotypic plasticity may play in the adaptation of species to rapid climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Whiteley
- Biology and Marine Biology Programs, University of Alaska Southeast, 11120 Glacier Highway, Juneau, Alaska 99801, USA.
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29
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Edgell TC, Neufeld CJ. Experimental evidence for latent developmental plasticity: intertidal whelks respond to a native but not an introduced predator. Biol Lett 2008; 4:385-7. [PMID: 18522925 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2008.0204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals with highly inducible traits may show no inducible response when exposed to a related but wholly novel cue. This appears to be true for the intertidal whelk Nucella lamellosa faced with a voracious introduced predator. In the laboratory, we exposed whelks to effluent from two species of predatory crab, the native red rock crab Cancer productus and the invasive European green crab Carcinus maenas. Nucella and Cancer have a long shared history in the northeast Pacific, whereas potential interaction with Carcinus began here less than 10 years ago. Although Nucella responded adaptively to Cancer effluent by increasing shell thickness and decreasing somatic growth, there was no such response to Carcinus. Furthermore, thicker shelled Nucella were less likely to be eaten by Carcinus. Because Nucella produces thicker shells when exposed to Cancer cues, its ability to respond similarly to Carcinus depends only on the coupling of the Carcinus cue to the existing developmental pathways for adaptive changes in shell form. Such coupling of latent plasticity to a novel cue -- via genetic changes or associative learning -- could explain many cases of rapid phenotypic change following a sudden shift in the environment.
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30
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Callahan HS, Maughan H, Steiner UK. Phenotypic plasticity, costs of phenotypes, and costs of plasticity: toward an integrative view. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008; 1133:44-66. [PMID: 18559815 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1438.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Why are some traits constitutive and others inducible? The term costs often appears in work addressing this issue but may be ambiguously defined. This review distinguishes two conceptually distinct types of costs: phenotypic costs and plasticity costs. Phenotypic costs are assessed from patterns of covariation, typically between a focal trait and a separate trait relevant to fitness. Plasticity costs, separable from phenotypic costs, are gauged by comparing the fitness of genotypes with equivalent phenotypes within two environments but differing in plasticity and fitness. Subtleties associated with both types of costs are illustrated by a body of work addressing predator-induced plasticity. Such subtleties, and potential interplay between the two types of costs, have also been addressed, often in studies involving genetic model organisms. In some instances, investigators have pinpointed the mechanistic basis of plasticity. In this vein, microbial work is especially illuminating and has three additional strengths. First, information about the machinery underlying plasticity--such as structural and regulatory genes, sensory proteins, and biochemical pathways--helps link population-level studies with underlying physiological and genetic mechanisms. Second, microbial studies involve many generations, large populations, and replication. Finally, empirical estimation of key parameters (e.g., mutation rates) is tractable. Together, these allow for rigorous investigation of gene interactions, drift, mutation, and selection--all potential factors influencing the maintenance or loss of inducible traits along with phenotypic and plasticity costs. Messages emerging from microbial work can guide future efforts to understand the evolution of plastic traits in diverse organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary S Callahan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Barnard College, Columbia University, 3009 Broadway, New York, NY 10027, USA.
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31
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Rivera G. Ecomorphological variation in shell shape of the freshwater turtle Pseudemys concinna inhabiting different aquatic flow regimes. Integr Comp Biol 2008; 48:769-87. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icn088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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